Structural characterization of a galactoglucomannan with anti-neuroinflammatory activity from Ganoderma lucidum

According to traditional Chinese medicine theory, Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) presents certain effects for nourishing nerves and calming the mind. G. lucidum polysaccharides (GLPs) have various biological activities; however, the structural characterization and the structure-activity relationship in anti-neuroinflammation of GLPs needs to be further investigated. In this work, the crude polysaccharide GL70 exhibited a remarkable impact on enhancing the spatial learning and memory function, as well as reducing the anxiety symptoms of the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced rat model of Alzheimer's disease (AD). A galactoglucomannan (GLP70-1-2) was isolated from GL70, and characterized by monosaccharide composition, partial acid hydrolysis, methylation, and NMR analysis. The backbone of GLP70-1-2 was →6)-α-D-glcp-(1 → 6)-β-D-galp-(1 → [6)-β-D-manp-(1]3 → 4)-α-D-Glcp-(1 → 6)-α-D-glcp-(1 → 2)-β-D-galp-(1 → [4)-α-D-glcp-(1 → 6)-β-D-manp-(1 → 2)-β-D-galp-(1]2 → 6)-β-D-glcp-(1 → 6)-β-D-glcp-(1→ with two side chains attached to O-4 of →6)-β-D-galp-(1→ and O-3 of →6)-β-D-glcp-(1→, respectively. In addition, GLP70-1-2 exhibited remarkable efficacy in decreasing the level of pro-inflammatory factors in LPS-activated BV2 cells through the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway. Collectively, GLP70-1-2 exhibited significant anti-neuroinflammatory activity and may have the potential for developing as a drug for AD.

Structural variety of glucans from Ganoderma lucidum fruiting bodies

Ganoderma lucidum, widely used in traditional medicine, has several biological properties. Polysaccharides, mainly glucans, are known as one of its main bioactive compounds. Consequently, the achievement and chemical investigation of such molecules are of pharmaceutical interest. Herein, we obtained water-insoluble and water-soluble polysaccharides from G. lucidum by alkaline extraction. Fractionation process yielded three fractions (GLC-1, GLC-2, and GLC-3). All samples showed to be composed mainly of glucans. GLC-1 is a linear (1 → 3)-linked β-glucan; GLC-2 is a mixture of three different linear polysaccharides: (1 → 3)-β-glucan, (1 → 3)-α-glucan, and (1 → 4)-α-mannan; while GLC-3 is a branched β-glucan with a (1 → 4)-linked main chain, which is branched at O-3 or O-6 by (1 → 3)- or (1 → 6)-linked side chains. This research reports the variability of glucans in Ganoderma lucidum fruiting bodies and applicable methodologies to obtain such molecules. These polysaccharides can be further applied in biological studies aiming to investigate how their chemical differences may affect their biological properties.

Unveiling the distribution of chemical constituents at different body parts and maturity stages of Ganoderma lingzhi by combining metabolomics with desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry imaging (DESI)

Ganoderma lingzhi is an important medicinal fungus, which is widely used as dietary supplement and for pharmaceutical industries. However, the spatial distribution and dynamic accumulation pattern of active components such as ganoderic acids (GAs) among different parts of G. lingzhi fruiting body are still unclear. In this study, desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry imaging (DESI-MSI) with untargeted metabolomics analysis was applied to investigate the metabolites distribution within G. lingzhi fruiting body at four different maturity stages (squaring, opening, maturation and harvesting stage). A total of 132 metabolites were characterized from G. lingzhi, including 115 triterpenoids, 11 fatty acids and other component. Most of the GAs content in the cap was significantly higher than that in the stipe, with six components such as ganoderic acid B being extremely significant. GAs in the cap was mainly present in the bottom edge of the mediostratum layer, such as ganoderic A-I and ganoderic GS-1, while in the stipe, they were mainly distributed in the shell layer and the context layer, such as ganoderic A-F. Most ganoderic acids content in both the stipe and the cap of G. lingzhi was gradually decreased with the development of G. lingzhi. The GAs in the stipe was gradually transferred from the shell layer to the content layer, while the distribution of GAs among different tissues of the cap was not significantly changed. In addition, linoleic acid, 9-HODE, 9-KODE and other fatty acids were mainly accumulated in the opening and maturing stage of the caps. This study further clarifies the spatial dynamic distribution of GAs in G. lingzhi fruiting body at four different maturity stages (squaring, opening, maturation and harvesting stage), which provides a basis for the rational utilization of the medicinal parts of G. lingzhi. Furthermore, mass spectrometry imaging combined with non-target metabolome analysis provides a powerful tool for the spatial distribution of active substances in the different regions of the medicinal edible fungi.

Combined NMR and MS-based metabonomics and real-time PCR analyses reveal dynamic metabolic changes of Ganoderma lucidum during fruiting body growing

Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) is a rare medicinal fungus with various beneficial properties. One of its main components, ganoderic acids (GAs), are important triterpenoids known for their sedative and analgesic, hepatoprotective, and anti-tumor activities. Understanding the growth and development of the G. lucidum fruiting body is crucial for determining the optimal time to harvest them. In this study, we used nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to systematically characterize the metabolites of G. lucidum at seven distinct developmental stages. We also measured the contents of seven kinds of GAs using LC-MS/MS. A total of 49 metabolites were detected in G. lucidum, including amino acids, sugars, organic acids and GAs. During the transition from the bud development period (I) to the budding period (II), we observed a rapid accumulation of glucose, tyrosine, nicotinamide ribotide, inosine and GAs. After the budding period, the contents of most metabolites decreased until the mature period (VII). In addition, the contents of GAs showed an initial raising, followed by a decline during the elongation period, except for GAF, which exhibited a rapid raise during the mature stage. We also detected the expression of several genes involved in GA synthesis, finding that most genes including 16 cytochrome P450 monooxygenase were all down-regulated during periods IV and VII compared to period I. These findings provide valuable insights into the dynamic metabolic profiles of G. lucidum throughout its growth stage, and it is recommended to harvest G. lucidum at period IV.

Structural characterization and anti-oxidative activity for a glycopeptide from Ganoderma lucidum fruiting body

A water-soluble glycopeptide (named GL-PWQ3) with a molecular weight (Mw) of 2.40 × 104 g/mol was isolated from Ganoderma lucidum fruiting body by hot water extraction, membrane ultrafiltration, and gel column chromatography, which mainly consisted of glucose and galactose. Based on the methylation, FT-IR, 1D, and 2D NMR analysis, the polysaccharide portion of GL-PWQ3 was identified as a glucogalactan, which was comprised of unsubstituted (1,6-α-Galp, 1,6-β-Glcp, 1,4-β-Glcp) and monosubstituted (1,2,6-α-Galp and 1,3,6-β-Glcp) in the backbone and possible branches that at the O-3 position of 1,3-Glcp and T-Glcp, and the O-2 position of T-Fucp, T-Manp or T-Glcp. The chain conformational study by SEC-MALLS-RI and AFM revealed that GL-PWQ3 was identified as a highly branched polysaccharide with a polydispersity index of 1.25, and might have compact sphere structures caused by stacked multiple chains. Moreover, the GL-PWQ3 shows strong anti-oxidative activity in NRK-52E cells. This study provides a theoretical basis for further elucidating the structure-functionality relationships of GL-PWQ3 and its potential application as a natural antioxidant in pharmacotherapy as well as functional food additives.

Inhibition of intrarenal PRR-RAS pathway by Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide peptides in proteinuric nephropathy

Excessive proteinuria leads to renal dysfunction and damage. Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide peptide (GL-PP) and Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide peptide 2 (GL-PP2) are biologically active compounds extracted from Ganoderma lucidum. GL-PP has a relative molecular weight of 37,121 with 76.39 % polysaccharides and 16.35 % polypeptides, while GL-PP2 has a relative molecular weight of 31,130, composed of 64.14 % polysaccharides and 17.73 % polypeptides. The xylose: mannose: glucose monosaccharide ratios in GL-PP and GL-PP2 were 4.83:1:7.03 and 2.35:1:9.38, respectively. In this study, we investigated the protective effects of GL-PP and GL-PP2 on proteinuria-induced renal dysfunction and damage using rat and cell models. Both compounds reduced kidney injury, proteinuria, and inhibited the (pro)renin receptor (PRR)-renin-angiotensin system (RAS) pathway, inflammatory cell infiltration, oxidative stress, and fibrosis. GL-PP2 showed stronger inhibition of cyclooxygenase-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase proteins compared to GL-PP. In cell models, both compounds displayed anti-inflammatory properties and improved cellular viability by inhibiting the PRR-RAS pathway. GL-PP2 has higher feasibility and productivity than GL-PP in pharmacology and industrial production. It shows promise in treating proteinuria-induced renal disease with superior anti-inflammatory effects and economic, safe industrial application prospects. Further research is needed to compare efficacy, mechanisms, clinical applications, and commercial feasibility of GL-PP and GL-PP2.

PRMT5 regulates the polysaccharide content by controlling the splicing of thaumatin-like protein in Ganoderma lucidum

IMPORTANCE

PRMT5 contributes to secondary metabolite biosynthesis in Ganoderma lucidum. However, the mechanism through which PRMT5 regulates the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites remains unclear. In the current study, PRMT5 silencing led to a significant decrease in the biosynthesis of polysaccharides from G. lucidum through the action of the alternative splicing of TLP. A shorter TLP2 isoform can directly bind to PGI and regulated polysaccharide biosynthesis. These results suggest that PRMT5 enhances PGI activity by regulating TLP binding to PGI. The results of the current study reveal a novel target gene for PRMT5-mediated alternative splicing and provide a reference for the identification of PRMT5 regulatory target genes.

A Comprehensive Review on the Chemical Composition, Pharmacology and Clinical Applications of Ganoderma

Ganoderma is the dried fruiting bodiy of Ganoderma lucidum (Leyss.ex Fr.) Karst. or Ganoderma sinense Zhao, Xu et Zhang, belonging to the family Polyporaceae, which grows mainly in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions. As a traditional Chinese medicine, Ganoderma has been used in China for more than 2000 years because of its medicinal properties, such as relieving cough and asthma, providing nourishment, and strengthening. Currently, more than 470 natural compounds have been obtained from the fungus, mainly including terpenoids, steroids, alkaloids, phenols, and other types of compounds. Modern pharmacological studies have shown that Ganoderma has antitumor, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and immunomodulatory effects. It is mainly used in clinical practice for the treatment of Diabetic Nephropathy and malignant tumors, with few side effects and high safety. This paper reviews the progress of research on its chemical composition, pharmacological effects, and clinical applications, with the goal of providing a basis for the better development and utilization of Ganoderma.

Neuroprotective, neurogenic, and anticholinergic evidence of Ganoderma lucidum cognitive effects: Crucial knowledge is still lacking

Ganoderma lucidum is a mushroom that has been widely used for centuries in Asian countries for its antiaging properties. It is popularly known as "Ling Zhi," "Reishi," and "Youngzhi," and because of its benefits, it is known as the "immortality mushroom." Pharmacological assays have revealed that G. lucidum ameliorates cognitive impairments through inhibition of β-amyloid and neurofibrillary tangle formation, antioxidant effect, reduction of inflammatory cytokine release and apoptosis, genic expression modulation, among other activities. Chemical investigations on G. lucidum have revealed the presence of metabolites such as triterpenes, which are the most explored in this field, as well as flavonoids, steroids, benzofurans, and alkaloids; in the literature, these have also been reported to have mnemonic activity. These properties of the mushroom make it a potential source of new drugs to prevent or reverse memory disorders, as actual medications are able to only alleviate some symptoms but are unable to stop the progress of cognitive impairments, with no impact on social, familiar, and personal relevance. In this review, we discuss the cognitive findings of G. lucidum reported in the literature, converging the proposed mechanisms through the several pathways that underlie memory and cognition processes. In addition, we highlight the gaps that deserve particular attention to support future studies.

Modifications of Ganoderma lucidum spores into digestive-tissue highly adherent porous carriers with selective affinity to hydrophilic or hydrophobic drugs

Ganoderma lucidum spores (GLSs) have been suggested to provide optimal structures for transporting orally bioavailable drugs. However, the double-layer wall and cavities of GLSs are naturally closed. This study aimed to modify GLSs into porous carriers by opening the layers and internal cavity with iturin A (IA) followed by potassium hydroxide (KOH) or hydrochloric acid (HCl). The (IA + KOH)- and (IA + HCl)-treated GLS carriers exhibited a high loading rate of 301.50 ± 2.33 and 268.18 ± 7.72 mg/g for the hydrophilic methylene blue (MB) and hydrophobic rifampicin (RF), respectively. The mechanisms underlying the modification involved the enhancement of the specific surface area with IA and the exposure of hydrophilic groups or hydrophobic groups of the GLSs with KOH or HCl. The sustained 48-h molecule-release profiles of the MB- and RF-loaded GLS carriers were best fitted using a first-order kinetics model in simulated gastric (or intestinal) fluid compared with other models. In mice, the designed GLS carriers had high adhesion capacities onto the mucosa of the digestive tract and long retention times (120 h), and even promoted the secretion of mucus and expression of several key intestinal barrier proteins. This study provided a new method to modify GLSs into oral carriers with selective drug affinity, high loading capacity, sustained drug release, and high adhesion to the digestive tract.

The role of post-transcriptional modification on a new tRNAIle(GAU) identified from Ganoderma lucidum in its fragments' cytotoxicity on cancer cells

Ganoderma lucidum (Ganoderma) is a famous Chinese herbal medicine which has been used clinically for thousands of years in China. Despite numerous studies on triterpenes and polysaccharides, the bioactivity of RNAs abundant in Ganoderma remains unknown. Here, based on LC-MS techniques, dihydrouracil, 5-methyluridine (m⁵U) and pseudouridine were identified at position 19, 52 and 53 of a new tRNA^Ile(GAU) which was isolated as the most abundant tRNA species in Ganoderma, and is the first purified tRNA from fungus. Cytotoxic screening of tRNA-half (t-half) and tRNA fragment (tRF) derived from this tRNA, as well as their mimics (t-half or tRF as antisense strand), demonstrated that the double-stranded form, i.e., tRF and t-halve mimics, exhibited stronger cytotoxicity than their single-stranded form, and the cytotoxicity of t-half mimic is significantly stronger than that of tRF mimic. Notably, the cytotoxicity of 3'-t-half mimic is not only much more potent than that of taxol, but also is much more potent than that of ganoderic acids, the major bioactive components in Ganoderma. Furthermore, 3'-t-half mimic_M2 (m⁵U modified) exhibited significantly stronger cytotoxicity than unmodified 3'-t-half mimic, which is consistent with the computational simulation showing that m⁵U modification enhances the stability of the tertiary structure of 3'-t-half mimic. Overall, the present study not only indicates t-halves are bioactive components in Ganoderma which should not be neglected, but also reveals an important role of post-transcriptional modification on tRNA in its fragments' cytotoxicity against cancer cells, which benefits the design and development of RNAi drugs from natural resource.

A Review on the Sources, Structures, and Pharmacological Activities of Lucidenic Acids

Ganoderma lucidum has long been used as a multi-purpose plant and functional food. The pharmacological properties of G. lucidum are primarily attributed to its polysaccharides and triterpenoids. Ganoderic and lucidenic acids are the two major triterpenoids groups in G. lucidum. Despite the discovery of 22 types of lucidenic acids, research on lucidenic acids is significantly less extensive compared to that on ganoderic acid. To the best of our knowledge, for the first time, in this review, we aimed to summarize the sources, contents, chemical structures, and pharmacological effects, including anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-viral, neuroprotective, anti-hyperlipidemic, anti-hypercholesterolemic, and anti-diabetic properties, of lucidenic acids. Studies on lucidenic acids are still preliminary and have several limitations. Therefore, more in-depth studies with optimal designs are essential for the development of lucidenic acids as medicines, functional foods, and nutraceuticals.

Differential Analysis of Korean and Chinese Lingzhi or Reishi Medicinal Mushroom Ganoderma lucidum (Agaricomycetes) Spore Powder by Infrared Spectroscopy with Stoichiometry

To investigate the differences between Korean Ganoderma lucidum spore powder (KP), broken-spo-roderm KP (BSKP), Chinese traditional G. lucidum spore powder (CP), and broken-sporoderm CP (BSCP), they were identified by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), second derivative infrared spectroscopy (SD-IR), dual-index sequence analysis (DISA) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). SEM showed that there were no significant differences in microstructure between the two kinds of spore powders. FT-IR spectra showed that the four spore powders appeared with characteristic peaks of 3400, 3006, 2925, 1745, 1535, 1454, 1249, 1074, 1049, and 896 cm-1, respectively, they were contained the characteristic peaks of total triterpenes, polysaccharides and fatty acids. DISA showed that the same species of spore powders, the overall similarity of before and broken the sporoderm was high with minor differences and there were no differences between the different kinds of spore powders. Similarity analysis showed that the four spore powders were in high agreement and were no differences. The polysaccharide, total triterpene, spore oil and protein content of the four spore powders were determined separately. The results showed that the active ingredients content of the batch of KP were lower than that of CP, that of BSKP were lower than that of BSCP, while the active ingredients content of both broken-sporoderm spore powders were higher than that of before broken-sporoderm. It is inferred that the structure of the main chemical and component of KP is the same as that of CP. This study provides a reference for the future development and application of G. lucidum.

Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides ameliorate lipopolysaccharide-induced acute pneumonia via inhibiting NRP1-mediated inflammation

CONTEXT

Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides (GLP), from Ganoderma lucidum (Leyss. ex Fr.) Karst. (Ganodermataceae), are reported to have anti-inflammatory effects, including anti-neuroinflammation and anti-colitis. Nevertheless, the role of GLP in acute pneumonia is unknown.

OBJECTIVE

To explore the protective role of GLP against LPS-induced acute pneumonia and investigate possible mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

GLP were extracted and used for high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis after acid hydrolysis and PMP derivatization. Sixty C57BL/6N male mice were randomly divided into six groups: Sham, Model, LPS + GLP (25, 50 and 100 mg/kg/d administered intragastrically for two weeks) and LPS + dexamethasone (6 mg/kg/d injected intraperitoneally for one week). Acute pneumonia mouse models were established by intratracheal injection of LPS. Haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining was examined to evaluate lung lesions. ELISA and quantitative real-time PCR were employed to assess inflammatory factors expression. Western blots were carried out to measure Neuropilin-1 expression and proteins related to apoptosis and autophagy.

RESULTS

GLP suppressed inflammatory cell infiltration. In BALF, cell counts were 1.1 × 10⁶ (model) and 7.1 × 10⁵ (100 mg/kg). Release of GM-CSF and IL-6 was reduced with GLP (25, 50 and 100 mg/kg) treatment. The expression of genes IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and Saa3 was reduced. GLP treatment also suppressed the activation of Neuropilin-1 (NRP1), upregulated the levels of Bcl2/Bax and LC3 and led to downregulation of the ratio C-Caspase 3/Caspase 3 and P62 expression.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

GLP could protect against LPS-induced acute pneumonia through multiple mechanisms: blocking the infiltration of inflammatory cells, inhibiting cytokine secretion, suppressing NRP1 activation and regulating pneumonocyte apoptosis and autophagy.

Triterpenoids and Polysaccharides from Ganoderma lucidum Improve the Histomorphology and Function of Testes in Middle-Aged Male Mice by Alleviating Oxidative Stress and Cellular Apoptosis

Aging is an inevitable physiological process accompanied by a decline in body physiology, including male fertility. A preparation from Ganoderma lucidum (GL) containing triterpenes and polysaccharides has been shown to have anti-aging properties. In the current study, the effects of GL on mating ability, testosterone secretion, and testicular structure and function were observed in middle-aged male mice. The GL preparation was administered orally to mice for 2 to 5 months, and then behavioral, serological, and histopathological examinations were performed. Results showed that in the GL group of mice, the mating latency was shortened, the number of pursuits within 20 min was increased, and the mating success rate was higher compared to control mice. Additionally, the levels of serum testosterone, cell proliferation (Ki67), and sperm-specific lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)-C4 were increased, while the levels of senescence-related protein p16 and cellular apoptosis were decreased in GL mice. Testicular spermatogenic cells and sperm and stromal cells were reduced and exhibited structural disorder in 11- and 14-month-old control mice, while these changes were improved compared to age-matched mice receiving the GL preparation. Furthermore, the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA), and the pro-apoptotic protein Bax were decreased, while the anti-apoptotic protein Bcl-2 was increased in GL mice. Finally, the mitochondrial structure was relatively complete in GL mice compared to controls. Therefore, GL has the potential to improve testicular structure and function in middle-aged male mice by alleviating oxidative stress, maintaining mitochondrial homeostasis, and reducing cellular apoptosis.

Lanostane triterpenoids from Ganoderma lucidum and their inhibitory effects against FAAH

Ganoderma lucidum is a famous edible and medicinal fungus. Through a bioactive phytochemical investigation of the ethanolic extracts of the fruiting bodies of G. lucidum, twenty-nine triterpenoids, including eleven previously undescribed triterpenoids, were isolated and characterized based on spectroscopic data. The inhibitory effects of all the triterpenes against fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) were found to be in the range of 30-60% at 100 μM. Methyl ganoderate A displayed the strongest inhibitory activity (61%) against FAAH. Furthermore, all compounds displayed no cytotoxicity against LOVO and MCF-7 human cancer cells. Hence, our present study provides information about G. lucidum as a functional food or pharmaceutical supplement for the treatment of neuroinflammation.

Lucidenic acid A inhibits the binding of hACE2 receptor with spike protein to prevent SARS-CoV-2 invasion

High infection caused by mutations of SARS-CoV-2 calls for new prevention strategy. Ganoderma lucidum known as a superior immunoenhancer exhibits various antiviral effects, whether it can resist SARS-CoV-2 remains unclear. Herein, virtual screening combined with in vitro hACE2 inhibition assays were used to investigate its anti SARS-CoV-2 effect. Potential 54 active components, 80 core targets and 20 crucial pathways were identified by the component-target-pathway network. The binding characters of these components to hACE2 and its complexes with spike protein including omicron variant was analyzed by molecular docking. Lucidenic acid A was selected as the top molecule with high affinity to all receptors by forming hydrogen bonds. Molecular dynamics simulation showed it had good binding stability with the receptor proteins. Finally, in vitro FRET test demonstrated it inhibited the hACE2 activity with IC50 2 μmol/mL. Therefore, lucidenic acid A can prevent the virus invasion by blocking hACE2 binding with SARS-CoV-2.

Assessment of Cosmetic Properties and Safety of Use of Model Washing Gels with Reishi, Maitake and Lion's Mane Extracts

Natural cosmetics are becoming more and more popular every day. For this reason, this work investigates the properties of mushroom extracts, which are not as widely used in the cosmetics industry as plant ingredients. Water extracts of Grifolafrondosa (Maitake), Hericiumerinaceus (Lion's Mane) and Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi) were tested for their antioxidant properties, bioactive substances content, skin cell toxicity, ability to limit TEWL, effect on skin hydration and pH, and skin irritation. Our research showed that Maitake extract contained the highest amount of flavonoids and phenols, and also showed the most effective scavenging of DPPH and ABTS radicals as well as Chelation of Fe2+ and FRAP radicals, which were 39.84% and 82.12% in a concentration of 1000 µg/mL, respectively. All tested extracts did not increase the amount of ROS in fibroblasts and keratinocytes. The addition of mushroom extracts to washing gels reduced the irritating effect on skin, and reduced the intracellular production of free radicals, compared with the cosmetic base. Moreover, it was shown that the analyzedcosmetics had a positive effect on the pH and hydration of the skin, and reduced TEWL.

Investigation of HER-3 gene expression under the influence of carbohydrate biopolymers extract of shiitake and reishi in MCF-7 cell line

INTRODUCTION

Edible-medicinal fungi are mainly used in Asian countries to prevent various diseases. These mushrooms are also used to treat lung diseases and cancer. Ganoderma lucidum and Lentinula edodes are the most important edible-medicinal fungi. The polysaccharides of these fungi are one of the bioactive compounds with anti-cancer properties.

OBJECTIVE

Evaluation of anti-cancer effects of Shiitake and Reishi polysaccharides.

METHODS

In this study, fungal polysaccharides were extracted using the hot water method and were purified by Diethylaminoethyl Sephadex A-25 (DEAE-Sephadex A-25) chromatography column and their concentration was measured by phenolic sulfuric acid method. The biological effects of the extracted polysaccharides from Ganoderma lucidum and Lentinula edodes on the MCF-7 cell line were investigated using an MTT assay and then its effects on the expression of the P53 cancer regulatory gene and HER-3 gene were investigated.

RESULTS

Based on the results, the concentration of Ganoderma lucidum and Lentinula edodes extracted polysaccharides were 0.024 and 0.103 mg/ml, respectively. Polysaccharides of these two fungi increased the expression of the P53 gene and decreased the expression of the HER-3 gene in a dose and time-dependent manner.

DISCUSSION

Natural biocompatible polysaccharides with anti-cancer properties that are native, are available, and inexpensive, so they can be used as dietary supplements to prevent and help treat cancer.

Study on Quality Control of Compound Anoectochilus roxburghii (Wall.) Lindl. by Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Compound Anoectochilus roxburghii (Wall.) Lindl. (A. roxburghii) oral liquid (CAROL) is a hospital preparation of A. roxburghii and Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum), which have hepatoprotective effects. Eight active components (five nucleosides/nucleobases and three triterpenoid acids) in CAROL, A. roxburghii, and G. lucidum were simultaneously detected by high-performance liquid chromatography−tandem mass spectrometry (LC−MS/MS). The multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode was applied for the detection of analytes. These eight compounds were separated well within 12 min and quantified using the internal standard working curve method. The method showed good linearity (R2 > 0.9935) and high sensitivity (limit of detection = 0.29 ng/mL). The analyte recovery ranged from 85.07% to 97.50% (relative standard deviation < 3.31%). The content of the target analytes in four batches of CAROL, and the raw materials of G. lucidum and A. roxburghii from the five regions was determined using this method. The contents of guanosine and ganoderic acid A in four batches of oral liquid were high and stabilized and could be recommended as quality markers (Q-marker) for CAROL. Simultaneous qualitative and quantitative analysis of nucleosides and triterpenoid acids in CAROL, A. roxburghii, and G. lucidum by LC−MS/MS based on the MRM model was reported for the first time. The proposed method provides a sensitive, rapid, and reliable approach for the quality control of Chinese medicinal products.

Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides inhibit in vitro tumorigenesis, cancer stem cell properties and epithelial-mesenchymal transition in oral squamous cell carcinoma

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The polysaccharides of the millenary mushroom Ganoderma lucidum (GL) have been shown for decades to present anti-tumor activities, but few studies evaluated its importance on cancer stem cells and EMT process. Cancer stem cells (CSC) drive the development of carcinoma and are also involved in cancer treatment failure, being a good target for treatment success. Also, the process of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is involved in metastasis and cancer relapse. Besides that, the increasing incidence worldwide of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) became a public health issue with a high rate of metastasis and poor quality of life for patients during and after treatment.

AIM OF THE STUDY

to evaluate G. lucidum polysaccharides (GLPS) in vitro effects on OSCC, focusing on hallmarks associated with tumorigenesis using the SCC-9, a squamous cells carcinoma lineage from the tongue.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

SCC-9 cells were treated in vitro for 72h with different GLPS concentrations. The controls cells were maintained with culture media only and cisplatin was used as treatment control. After the treatment period, the cells were evaluated.

RESULTS

GLPS treatment changed cell morphology and granularity, delayed migration, decreased colony, and impaired sphere formation, thereby leading to a non-invasive and less proliferative behavior of tumoral cells. Additionally, GLPS downregulated CSC, EMT, and drug sensitivity (ABC) markers.

CONCLUSIONS

These results show that the natural product GLPS has the potential to be an important ally for tongue squamous cell carcinoma treatment, bringing the millenary compound to modern therapy, providing a basis for future studies and the improvement of life quality for OSCC patients.

Circular RNA NF1-419 Inhibits Proliferation and Induces Apoptosis by Regulating Lipid Metabolism in Astroglioma Cells

BACKGROUND

Astroglioma is the most common primary tumor of the central nervous system. Currently, there is no effective treatment for astroglioma. In the present study, the extract (L3) from Ganoderma Lucidum (G. lucidum) was found to inhibit the growth of astroglioma U87 cells and change the expression of circular RNAs (circRNAs). One of these, including the circular NF1-419 (circNF1-419), was of interest because NF1 gene is a classic tumor suppressor gene.

OBJECTIVES

The functional role of circ-NF1-419 in the inhibition of astroglioma cells remains unknown. This study focuses on the role of circNF1-419 in functional abnormalities of U87 astroglioma cells and aims to elaborate on its regulatory mechanism.

METHODS

The circNF1-419 overexpressing U87 (U87-NF1-419) cells were constructed. We generated U87-NF1-419 to evaluate the role of circNF1-419 on cell cycle, apoptosis, proliferation, tumor growth and metabolic regulation. Finally, we used docking screening to identify compounds in G. lucidum extracts that target circ-419.

RESULTS

U87-NF1-419 can promote cell apoptosis and regulate lipid metabolism through glycerophospholipid metabolism and retrograde endocannabinoid signaling. Further examinations revealed that the expression of metabolic regulators, such as L-type voltage-operated calcium channels (L-VOCC), phospholipase C-β3 (PLCβ3), Mucin1, cationic amino acid transporter 4 (CAT4), cationic amino acid transporter 1 (CAT1) and a kinase (PRKA) anchor protein 4 (AKAP4) was inhibited, while phosphatidylserine synthase 1 (PTDSS1) was enhanced in U87-NF1-419 cells. In vivo experiments showed that circNF1-419 inhibits tumor growth in BALB/C nude mice, and enhanced AKAP4 and PTDSS1 in tumor tissues. The virtual docking screening results supported that ganosporeric acid A, ganodermatriol, ganoderic acid B and α-D-Arabinofuranosyladenine in L3 could activate circNF1-419 in astroglioma treatment.

CONCLUSION

This study indicated that circNF1-419 could be a therapeutic target for the clinical treatment of astroglioma. L3 from Ganoderma Lucidum (G. lucidum) could inhibit astroglioma growth by activating circNF1-419.

The beneficial effects of Ganoderma lucidum on cardiovascular and metabolic disease risk

CONTEXT

Various herbal medicines are thought to be useful in the management of cardiometabolic disease and its risk factors. Ganoderma lucidum (Curtis) P. Karst. (Ganodermataceae), also known as Lingzhi, has received considerable attention for various indications, including some related to the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular and metabolic disease by ameliorating major cardiovascular risk factors.

OBJECTIVE

This review focuses on the major studies of the whole plant, plant extract, and specific active compounds isolated from G. lucidum in relation to the main risk factors for cardiometabolic disease.

METHODS

References from major databases including PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar were compiled. The search terms used were Ganoderma lucidum, Lingzhi, Reishi, cardiovascular, hypoglycaemic, diabetes, dyslipidaemia, antihypertensive, and anti-inflammatory.

RESULTS

A number of in vitro studies and in vivo animal models have found that G. lucidum possesses antioxidative, antihypertensive, hypoglycaemic, lipid-lowering, and anti-inflammatory properties, but the health benefits in clinical trials are inconsistent. Among these potential health benefits, the most compelling evidence thus far is its hypoglycaemic effects in patients with type 2 diabetes or hyperglycaemia.

CONCLUSIONS

The inconsistent evidence about the potential health benefits of G. lucidum is possibly because of the use of different Ganoderma formulations and different study populations. Further large controlled clinical studies are therefore needed to clarify the potential benefits of G. lucidum preparations standardised by known active components in the prevention and treatment of cardiometabolic disease.

Characteristics and antifatigue activity of graded polysaccharides from Ganoderma lucidum separated by cascade membrane technology

In this paper, cascade membrane technology was utilized to classify polysaccharides from Ganoderma lucidum (GLPs). The properties and antifatigue activity of graded polysaccharides were identified and compared. GLPs were separated using cascade ultrafiltration membranes of 100 kDa, 10 kDa and 1 kDa in sequence. The molecular weights of polysaccharides in these GLP fractions were approximately 322.0 kDa, 18.8 kDa and 6.4 kDa, and all polysaccharides were in active β-configurations. This showed that all graded GLPs could elongate swimming time, improve endurance and promote fatigue recovery, especially polysaccharides with molecular weights above 10 kDa. This demonstrated that GLPs could decrease the activities of SUN and CK and the levels of MDA and BLA. They also increased the level of Gly, accelerated fat transformation, and improved the activities of GPx, SOD and LDH in all treated mice. Accordingly, GLPs above 10 kDa might be potential agents with antifatigue activity.

High-Resolution QTOF-MRM for Highly Accurate Identification and Quantification of Trace Levels of Triterpenoids in Ganoderma lucidum Mycelium

The accurate quantification of triterpenoids in Ganoderma lucidum mushroom in the mycelium stage is challenging due to their low concentrations, interference from other possible isomers, and the complex matrix. Here, a high-resolution quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry "multiple reaction monitoring" with target enhancement (HR-QTOF-MRM) method was developed to quantify seven target triterpenoids in G. lucidum. The performance of this method was compared against an optimized QQQ-MRM method. The HR-QTOF-MRM was shown to be capable of distinguishing target triterpenoids from interferent peaks in the presence of matrices. The HR-QTOF-MRM LOD and LLOQ values were found to be one to two times lower than those derived from the QQQ-MRM method. Intraday and interday variabilities of the HR-QTOF-MRM demonstrated better reproducibility than the QQQ-MRM. In addition, excellent recoveries of the analytes ranging from 80 to 117% were achieved. Spiking experiments were carried out to verify and compare the quantitative accuracy of the two methods. The HR-QTOF-MRM method provided better percent accuracy, ranging from 84% to 99% (<3% RSD), compared with the range of 69 to 114% (<4%RSD) given by the QQQ-MRM method. These results demonstrate that the new HR-QTOF-MRM mode is able to improve sensitivity, reproducibility, and accuracy of trace level analysis of triterpenoids in the complex biological samples. The triterpenoid concentrations were in the range of nondetect to 0.06-6.72 mg/g of dried weight in fruiting body and to 0.0009-0.01 mg/g of dried weight in mycelium.

Health-Promoting of Polysaccharides Extracted from Ganoderma lucidum

Medicinal mushrooms are rich sources of pharmacologically active compounds. One of the mushrooms commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine is Ganoderma lucidum (Leyss. Ex Fr.) Karst. In Asian countries it is treated as a nutraceutical, whose regular consumption provides vitality and improves health. Ganoderma lucidum is an important source of biologically active compounds. The pharmacologically active fraction of polysaccharides has antioxidant, immunomodulatory, antineurodegenerative and antidiabetic activities. In this review, we summarize the activity of Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides (GLP).

Ganoderma lucidum triterpenoids and polysaccharides attenuate atherosclerotic plaque in high-fat diet rabbits

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Atherosclerosis is characterized by lipid deposition, oxidative stress, and inflammation in the arterial intima. Ganoderma lucidum triterpenoids (GLTs) and polysaccharides (GLPs) are traditional Chinese medicines with potential cardiovascular benefits. We aimed to comprehensively evaluate the effect of GLTs and GLPs on atherosclerosis and the associated underlying mechanisms in vivo and in vitro.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Japanese big-ear white rabbits were randomly divided into three groups of blank, model, and treatment, and the treatment group was fed with GLSO and GLSP (0.3 g/kg body-weight/day) for 4 months. Serum levels of triglyceride (TG), total (TC), and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) in GL treatment group were significantly lower than those in the model group. The area of aortic plaques was significantly reduced in the treatment group. Further, GL administration in oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL) stimulated human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) reduced the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) by inhibiting the upregulation of the nuclear transcription factor (NF)-κB p65 and the relative receptor LOX-1. In THP-1 cells treated with phorbol myristate acetate, GL inhibited the inflammatory polarization of macrophages (as evidenced by reduced TNF-α levels) via regulation of Notch1 and DLL4 pathways. Ox-LDL-stimulated THP-1 cells treated with GL showed an increase in the apoptosis of foam cells.

CONCLUSIONS

GLTs and GLPs attenuated the progression of atherosclerosis by alleviating endothelial dysfunction and inflammatory polarization of macrophages, thus promoting apoptosis of foam cells.

Structure and chain conformation of bioactive β-D-glucan purified from water extracts of Ganoderma lucidum unbroken spores

Two polysaccharide fractions (GLSB50 and GLSB70) with total sugar content of 82.07 wt% and 53.79 wt%, respectively, were obtained from the water extracts of unbroken Ganoderma lucidum spores by sequential ethanol precipitation treatment. Compared with GLSB70, GLSB50 exhibited better activity on stimulation of humoral immune responses in immunosuppressed mice. A novel β-D-glucan (GLSB50A-III-1) with weight average molecular weight (Mw) of 1.93 × 105 g/mol was purified from GLSB50 through chromatography separation. The exponent α value of Mark-Houwink-Sakurada equation was calculated to be 0.13, indicating that GLSB50A-III-1 presented globular spheres conformation in aqueous solution. Structural analysis showed that GLSB50A-III-1 mainly consisted of (1 → 3), (1 → 4), (1 → 6)-linked β-d-glucose residues in the backbone, with two single β-D-Glcp attached at O-6 of β-(1 → 3) and β-(1 → 4)-linked residues separately as side chains. The repeat unit of GLSB50A-III-1 was deduced as follows.

Prophylactic effects of sporoderm-removed Ganoderma lucidum spores in a rat model of streptozotocin-induced sporadic Alzheimer's disease

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum, Lingzhi), also known as "immortality mushroom" has been broadly used to improve health and longevity for thousands of years in Asia. G. lucidum and its spores have been used to promote health, based on its broad pharmacological and therapeutic activity. This species is recorded in Chinese traditional formula as a nootropic and has been suggested to improve cognitive dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease. However, little is known about the nootropic effects and molecular mechanism of action of G. lucidum spores.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The present study investigated the protective effects of sporoderm-deficient Ganoderma lucidum spores (RGLS) against learning and memory impairments and its mechanism of action.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In the Morris water maze, the effects of RGLS on learning and memory impairments were evaluated in a rat model of sporadic Alzheimer's disease that was induced by an intracerebroventricular injection of streptozotocin (STZ). Changes in amyloid β (Aβ) expression, Tau expression and phosphorylation, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and the BDNF receptor tropomyosin-related kinase B (TrkB) in the hippocampus were evaluated by Western blot.

RESULTS

Treatment with RGLS (360 and 720 mg/kg) significantly enhanced memory in the rat model of STZ-induced sporadic Alzheimer's disease and reversed the STZ-induced increases in Aβ expression and Tau protein expression and phosphorylation at Ser199, Ser202, and Ser396. The STZ-induced decreases in neurotrophic factors, including BDNF, TrkB and TrkB phosphorylation at Tyr816, were reversed by treatment with RGLS.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicate that RGLS prevented learning and memory impairments in the present rat model of STZ-induced sporadic Alzheimer's disease, and these effects depended on a decrease in Aβ expression and Tau hyperphosphorylation and the modulation of BDNF-TrkB signaling in the hippocampus.

Utilization of Response Surface Methodology in Optimization of Polysaccharides Extraction from Vietnamese Red Ganoderma lucidum by Ultrasound-Assisted Enzymatic Method and Examination of Bioactivities of the Extract

Red Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) is a popular medicinal herb commonly used in Vietnamese traditional remedies due to its potential value for health. In this study, polysaccharides were extracted from G. lucidum using ultrasound-assisted enzymatic extraction method. The response surface methodology and Box-Behnken design were employed to investigate the effects of pH, extraction temperature, extraction time, and ultrasonic power on the content of polysaccharides. Based on ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy analysis, the highest content of polysaccharides in the extract was 32.08 mg/g under optimum experimental parameters including enzyme concentration of 3%, pH of 5.5, extraction temperature of 45°C, extraction time of 30 min, and ultrasonic power of 480 W. The Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy was also used to identify the functional groups in the extracts. The molecular weights of polysaccharides were determined by gel permeation chromatography. The obtained extract was then evaluated for anticancer activities by using (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay, showing the anticancer activities with the half-maximal inhibitory concentration value of more than 512 μg/mL. This result suggested that UAEE could be considered as an appropriate and effective extraction method for bioactive crude polysaccharides from G. lucidum.

Optimization of ultrasonic-assisted extraction of polysaccharides and triterpenoids from the medicinal mushroom Ganoderma lucidum and evaluation of their in vitro antioxidant capacities

Ganoderma lucidum (Fr.) Krast, commonly known as "Lingzhi" in Chinese, is a medicinal mushroom that is rich in biologically active substances. Polysaccharides and triterpenoids are the two major components responsible for the bioactivity of this fungus. In the present study, the ultrasonic-assisted co-extraction (UACE) of polysaccharides and triterpenoids from G. lucidum was optimized using response surface methodology with a desirability function, with the equal importance for the two components. Following single factor experiments, the optimal conditions were determine as ultrasonic power of 210 W, extraction temperature of 80C, ratio of liquid to solid of 50 mL/g, and 100 min extraction time, using aqueous ethanol (50%, v/v) as the extracting solvent. Under the optimal conditions, the extraction yields of polysaccharides and triterpenoids reached 0.63% and 0.38%, respectively. On the basis of the scavenging capacity of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl and evaluation of reducing power, the antioxidant capacities of the polysaccharides obtained by optimal UACE process were higher than those of polysaccharides extracted using traditional hot water extraction, whereas the triterpenoid-rich extracts showed antioxidant activities similar to those obtained using the ethanol maceration method. The present study is the first report on the simultaneous extraction of polysaccharides and triterpenoids from G. lucidum. The developed UACE process could be useful in preparation of a polysaccharide- and triterpenoid-rich ingredient that holds great promise for application in the Ganoderma industry.

Ganoderma triterpenoids attenuate tumour angiogenesis in lung cancer tumour-bearing nude mice

CONTEXT

Ganoderma lucidum (Leyss. ex Fr.) Karst. (Polyporaceae) triterpenoids (GLTs), the main components and bioactive metabolites of G. lucidum, have antitumour activity.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the effects of GLTs in lung cancer tumour-bearing nude mice and their potential mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Forty BALB/c nude mice were randomly divided into four groups: saline control, GLT (1 g/kg/day), gefitinib (GEF, 15 mg/kg/day), and GLT (1 g/kg/day) + GEF (15 mg/kg/day) for 14 days. Cell viability was conducted using the Cell Counting Kit-8 assay. The tumour volume, inhibition rate, histopathological, microvessel density (MVD), mRNAs, and proteins were determined.

RESULTS

GLTs inhibited the cell viability of A549 cells with an IC₅₀ value of 14.38 ± 0.29 mg/L, while the IC₅₀ value of GEF was 10.26 ± 0.47 μmol/L. The tumour inhibition rate in the GLT + GEF group (51.54%) was significantly decreased relative to the saline control… group (p < 0.05). The MVD in the GLT + GEF group (2.9 ± 0.7) was significantly decreased than that in the saline control group (12.8 ± 1.4, p < 0.05). The angiostatin, endostatin, and Bax protein expression in the GLT, GEF, and GLT + GEF groups were significantly increased compared to those in the saline control group, while the VEGFR2 and Bcl-2 protein expression were decreased.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Our study provided evidence that GLT and GEF combination therapy may be a promising candidate for the treatment of lung cancer and as an experimental basis for clinical treatment.

Ganoderma lucidum Rhodiola compound preparation prevent D-galactose-induced immune impairment and oxidative stress in aging rat model

Aging is an irreversible process. This research aims to study the anti-aging effects of GRCP, a compound preparation made by Ganoderma lucidum and Rhodiola rosen, in aging rats. Rats were subcutaneously injected with 400 mg/kg of D-galactose daily, and aging could be induced after 8 weeks. The aging rats were treated with GRCP. This experiment was divided into 6 groups. Rats were randomly divided into the model group, positive control group, low-dose GRCP group (25 mg/kg body weight), medium-dose GRCP group (50 mg/kg body weight), and high-dose GRCP group (100 mg/kg body weight), healthy and normal rats were used as blank controls. After the end, the results show that the use of GRCP at a dose of 100 mg/kg is the best treatment for improving aging rats. Rats gained weight, spleen and thymus indexes, and splenocyte proliferation improved, and inflammatory cytokine levels decreased. Besides, biochemical indicators show that GRCP can improve the antioxidant enzyme activity and reduce the content of lipofuscin and TGF-β in aging rats (P < 0.05). GRCP can also inhibit the activation of the MyD88/NF-κB pathway in rat hippocampus. These results seem to suggest that GRCP can be used as a potential natural supplement or functional food to prevent aging.

Ganoderma lucidum Extract Reduces Insulin Resistance by Enhancing AMPK Activation in High-Fat Diet-Induced Obese Mice

Ganoderma lucidum is used widely in oriental medicine to treat obesity and metabolic diseases. Bioactive substances extracted from G. lucidum have been shown to ameliorate dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and type 2 diabetes in mice via multiple 5' AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK)-mediated mechanisms; however, further studies are required to elucidate the anti-obesity effects of G. lucidum in vivo. In this study, we demonstrated that 3% G. lucidum extract powder (GEP) can be used to prevent obesity and insulin resistance in a mouse model. C57BL/6 mice were provided with a normal diet (ND) or a high-fat diet (HFD) supplemented with 1, 3, or 5% GEP for 12 weeks and the effect of GEP on body weight, liver, adipose tissue, adipokines, insulin and glucose tolerance (ITT and GTT), glucose uptake, glucose-metabolism related proteins, and lipogenesis related genes was examined. GEP administration was found to reduce weight gain in the liver and fat tissues of the mice. In addition, serum parameters were significantly lower in the 3% and 5% GEP mice groups than in those fed a HFD alone, whereas adiponectin levels were significantly higher. We also observed that GEP improved glucose metabolism, reduced lipid accumulation in the liver, and reduced adipocyte size. These effects may have been mediated by enhanced AMPK activation, which attenuated the transcription and translation of lipogenic genes such as fatty acid synthase (FAS), stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD1), and sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c (SREBP1c). Moreover, AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation increased acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), insulin receptor (IR), IR substrate 1 (IRS1), and Akt protein expression and activation, as well as glucose transporter type 1/4 (GLUT1/4) protein production, thereby improving insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism. Together, these findings demonstrate that G. lucidum may effectively prevent obesity and suppress obesity-induced insulin resistance via AMPK activation.

Ganoderma lucidum: A rational pharmacological approach to surmount cancer

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) has been broadly used for health endorsement as well as longevity for over 2000 years in Asian countries. It is an example of an ancient remedy and known as immortality mushroom. It has been employed as a health promoting agent owing to its broad pharmacological and therapeutical approaches. It has been confirmed that G. lucidum exhibits significant potency to prevent and treat different types of cancers such as breast, prostate, colon, lung and cervical.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To explore anticancer effects of various pharmacologically active compounds obtained from G. lucidum and their possible mechanism of action.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A literature search was conducted using PubMed, Goggle Scholar, Saudi Digital Library and Cochrane Library until October 11, 2019. Search was made by using keywords such as anticancer evidence, mechanism of action, pharmacology, antioxidant, toxicity, chemotherapy, triterpenoids and polysaccharides of G. lucidum.

RESULTS

Various chemical compounds from G. lucidum exhibit anticancer properties mainly through diverse mechanism such as cytotoxic properties, host immunomodulators, metabolizing enzymes induction, prohibit the expression of urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) and urokinase plasminogen activator receptor (uPAR) in cancer cells. Among the various compounds of G. lucidum triterpenoids and polysaccharides are under the major consideration of studies due to their several evidence of preclinical and clinical studies against cancer.

CONCLUSION

Natural alternatives associated with mild side effects are the basic human need of present therapy to eradicate the new emerging disorders. This review is an attempt to compile pharmacologically active compounds of G. lucidum those exhibit anti cancer effects either alone or along with chemotherapy and anticancer mechanisms against various cancer cells, clinical trials, chemotherapy induced toxicity challenges with limitations. It acts as a possible substitute to combat cancer growth with advance and conventional combination therapies as natural alternatives.

UPLC-MS-based serum metabolomics reveals protective effect of Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide on ionizing radiation injury

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ganoderma lucidum Polysaccharide (GLP),traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) active ingredient, has a long history and has good curative effects on radiation injury. However, the mechanism of GLP treating radiation injury has not been clearly elucidated.

THE AIM OF THE STUDY

This study was aimed to investigate the preventive effects of GLP on mice with radiation injury and to explore its mechanisms by serum metabolomics.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirty mice were randomly divided into three groups,and namely 10 per group. The normal control group and the radiation model with normal saline and GLP group with GLP treatment (96 mg·kg-1) for 14 days. 2 h after 7th day after the intragastric administration, the model group and GLP group were subjected to whole body irradiation by X-rays except the normal control group. The peripheral blood WBC, RBC, HGB, PLT indicators.UPLC-Q-TOF-MS technique was used to analyze the serum of normal group, model group and GLP group, and to explore its potential key biomarkers and corresponding related metabolic pathways.

RESULTS

The number of peripheral blood leukocytes (WBC) in the radiation model group was lower than that in the GLP group and the number of platelets (PLT) in the GLP group was significantly higher than that in the model group.Combined with the methods of principal component analysis (PCA), projection to latent structure-discrimination analysis (PLS-DA), three group were clearly distinguished from each other and 18 metabolites were identified as the potential biomarkers in the GLP treated mice. The identified biomarkers indicated that there were perturbations of the taurine and hypotaurine metabolism and glycerophospholipid metabolism.

CONCLUSION

GLP can play a role in radiation protection by improving the expression of related potential biomarkers and related metabolic pathways in serum of radiation-induced mice.

Water-Extracted Ganoderma lucidum Induces Apoptosis and S-Phase Arrest via Cyclin-CDK2 Pathway in Glioblastoma Cells

Glioblastoma is one of the most common and most aggressive brain cancers. The current treatment is mainly surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy, but the results are not satisfactory. Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum), also called “Lingzhi”, is a medicinal mushroom that has been used as a therapeutic agent for the treatment of numerous diseases, including cancer. However, whether it is effective for treating cancer is still unclear. In the present study, the anti-tumor effect of a water extract of G. lucidum was investigated using brain tumor cells. We used an analysis of cell viability, flow cytometry, the IncuCyte live-cell analysis system, and Western blotting to study its effects. The water extract from G. lucidum inhibited cell proliferation in a dose- and time-dependent manner, and it induced mitochondria-mediated apoptosis and cell cycle arrest at S phase via the cyclin-CDK2 pathway in human brain tumor cells. In addition, the G. lucidum extract significantly inhibited cell migration and mesenchymal marker expression based on the IncuCyte live-cell assay and qRT-PCR analysis. In summary, these anti-tumor effects in brain tumor cells suggest that G. lucidum may be useful for treating brain tumors.

Associated Targets of the Antioxidant Cardioprotection of Ganoderma lucidum in Diabetic Cardiomyopathy by Using Open Targets Platform: A Systematic Review

Even with substantial advances in cardiovascular therapy, the morbidity and mortality rates of diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM) continually increase. Hence, a feasible therapeutic approach is urgently needed. Objectives. This work is aimed at systemically reviewing literature and addressing cell targets in DCM through the possible cardioprotection of G. lucidum through its antioxidant effects by using the Open Targets Platform (OTP) website. Methods. The OTP website version of 19.11 was accessed in December 2019 to identify the studies in DCM involving G. lucidum. Results. Among the 157 cell targets associated with DCM, the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) was shared by all evidence, drug, and text mining data with 0.08 score association. mTOR also had the highest score association 0.1 with autophagy in DCM. Among the 1731 studies of indexed PubMed articles on G. lucidum published between 1985 and 2019, 33 addressed the antioxidant effects of G. lucidum and its molecular signal pathways involving oxidative stress and therefore were included in the current work. Conclusion. mTOR is one of the targets by DCM and can be inhibited by the antioxidative properties of G. lucidum directly via scavenging radicals and indirectly via modulating mTOR signal pathways such as Wnt signaling pathway, Erk1/2 signaling, and NF-κB pathways.

Influence of Humidity on the Acoustic Properties of Mushroom Mycelium Films Used as Sensitive Layers for Acoustic Humidity Sensors

The influence of humidity on the density, shear elastic module, viscosity, and thickness of the mushroom Pleurotus eryngii and Ganoderma lucidum mycelium films was studied. These data were obtained by comparing the theoretical and experimental frequency dependencies of the complex electrical impedance of bulk acoustic wave (BAW) resonator loaded by mycelium film using the least-squares method. This procedure was performed for the BAW resonator with pointed films for the relative humidity range of 17%–56% at the room temperature. As a result, the changes of the density, shear elastic module, viscosity, and thickness of the films under study, due to the water vapor adsorption, were determined. It has been established that the properties of mycelium films are restored after removing from the water vapor. So, these results show the possibility of using investigated mycelium films as sensitive layers for acoustic humidity sensors.

Use of Ganoderma lucidum (Ganodermataceae, Basidiomycota) as Radioprotector

For millennia, naturopaths and physicians have used Ganoderma lucidum (reishi mushroom) for its diverse therapeutic properties, as recorded in the oldest Chinese herbal encyclopedia. Indeed, a radioprotective effect has been reported in the isolated components of its extracts. A systematic review and meta-analyses (PRISMA) was conducted in March 2020, searching databases including PubMed, Scopus, Embase, and Google Scholar, along with Clinical Trials. The inclusion criteria were ex vivo, in vitro, and in vivo studies, with full texts in English, conducted to determine the radioprotective benefits of G. lucidum, or reports in which ionizing radiation was used. From a total number of 1109 records identified, 15 full text articles were eligible, none of them were clinical trials. In vivo studies reveal the efficiency of G. lucidum aqueous extracts of polysaccharides and triterpenes in mice exposed to γ-rays. In plasmid, they can reduce radiation damage as an increment of the open circular form, as well as increase the DNA extension, as shown in vitro studies. Ex vivo studies conducted in human blood cells show the radioprotective effect of β-glucan of aqueous extract of G. lucidum, nevertheless, its implementation as radioprotector to humans is in need of further clinical research studies.

Biovalorization of soybean residue (okara) via fermentation with Ganoderma lucidum and Lentinus edodes to attain products with high anti-osteoporotic effects

Okara, despite being a soybean processing by-product, still holds many nutrients. Thus, considerable attention has been recently paid to its reuse. In this study, solid-state fermentation was performed using Ganoderma lucidum and Lentinus edodes. Antioxidant activity and bioactive compound levels in G. lucidum-fermented okara (GLFO) and L. edodes-fermented okara (LEFO) were assayed. Antiosteoporosis bioactivity was evaluated using an animal model. The results demonstrated that solid-state fermentation significantly improved the antioxidant activity and bioactive compound levels. Furthermore, GLFO and LEFO increased trabecular bone volume, although only the GLFO-treated group exhibited significantly improved trabecular separation compared with the bilateral ovariectomy-treated control group. GLFO-related outcomes were superior to those of LEFO. The results demonstrate that okara products are effective for treating postmenopausal osteoporosis in humans.

Spent Ganoderma lucidum substrate derived biochar as a new bio-adsorbent for Pb2+/Cd2+ removal in water

The present study firstly reports spent Ganoderma lucidum substrate derived biochars (SLBCS) for the effective removal of Pb²⁺/Cd²⁺ from water. The effects of pyrolysis temperature on the SLBCS characteristics and Pb²⁺/Cd²⁺ adsorption mechanism was studied systematically. The surface physicochemical properties of SLBCS were significantly affected by the pyrolysis temperature. The increase in pyrolysis temperature from 250 to 650 °C resulted in a drastic increase in the biochar surface area and the well development of mesoporous structure, which could provide more effective adsorption sites for Pb²⁺ and Cd²⁺ onto SLBCS. According to the Langmuir model, the obtained maximum adsorption capacity of Pb²⁺ onto SL650 reached 262.76 mg g^-1, while that of Cd²⁺ reached 75.82 mg g^-1. The adsorption capacities of SL650 for Pb²⁺ and Cd²⁺ were even higher than that of other modified biochars. The high adsorption capacity of SL650 for Pb²⁺, attributed to the precipitation supported by high temperature, benefitted the formation of carbonate minerals. Two possible mechanisms involved in Cd²⁺ sorption: carbonate precipitation and coordination with π electrons. Desorption of SL650 showed high efficiency for Pb²⁺, but slightly low efficiency for Cd²⁺. These results indicate that SL650 can be applied for removing heavy metals, especially Pb²⁺, from polluted water.

Ganoderma lucidum spore oil induces apoptosis of breast cancer cells in vitro and in vivo by activating caspase-3 and caspase-9

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The mushroom Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) is a traditional Chinese medicine reported to have a variety of pharmacological properties, including anti-cancer activity. G. lucidum spore oil (GLSO) is a lipid substance extracted from sporoderm-broken spore of G. lucidum. However, the effect of GLSO on breast cancer and the underlying molecular mechanism remain unclear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study was to identify the effects of GLSO on breast cancer cells in vitro and in vivo as well as to investigate the mechanistic basis for the anticancer effect of GLSO.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

First, in vitro MDA-MB-231 cells were treated with GLSO (0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 μL/mL). The protein levels of B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), Bcl-2-associated X (Bax), X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis (XIAP), total poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), caspase-3 and caspase-8 were examined using western blotting. The mRNA expression levels of Fas-associated protein with death domain (FADD), TNF receptor-associated factor 2 (TRAF2), caspases-3, -8, -9 and Bax were examined using qRT-PCR. Second, in vivo the anticancer properties of GLSO were assessed by H&E, TUNEL and immunohistochemistry in BALB/c mice injected with 4T1 cells. In addition, the levels of caspase-9/caspase-3 signaling pathway proteins in tumor tissue were evaluated by immunoblotting. Finally, MDA-MB-231 cells were treated with caspase inhibitors to measure cell viability, the protein levels were examined with western blotting.

RESULTS

The results in vitro showed that GLSO up-regulated the expression of Bax and caspase-3 in MDA-MB-231 cells, but had no effect on the expression of caspase-8. Moreover, the growth of tumors in vivo was significantly suppressed in the GLSO-treated group. The results of Western blot were consistent with in vitro. In vitro, co-treatment of MDA-MB-231 cells with caspase inhibitors reduced the inhibitory effect of GLSO on cell growth.

CONCLUSIONS

GLSO inhibits the growth of MDA-MB-231 cells and tumors in vivo by inducing apoptosis, which may be achieved through the mitochondrial apoptotic pathway.

Ergosterol Peroxide from the Medicinal Mushroom Ganoderma lucidum Inhibits Differentiation and Lipid Accumulation of 3T3-L1 Adipocytes

Ergosterol peroxide is a natural compound of the steroid family found in many fungi, and it possesses antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer and antiviral activities. The anti-obesity activity of several edible and medicinal mushrooms has been reported, but the effect of mushroom-derived ergosterol peroxide on obesity has not been studied. Therefore, we analyzed the effect of ergosterol peroxide on the inhibition of triglyceride synthesis at protein and mRNA levels and differentiation of 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Ergosterol peroxide inhibited lipid droplet synthesis of differentiated 3T3-L1 cells, expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) and CCAT/enhancer-binding protein alpha (C/EBPα), the major transcription factors of differentiation, and also the expression of sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c), which promotes the activity of PPARγ, resulting in inhibition of differentiation. It further inhibited the expression of fatty acid synthase (FAS), fatty acid translocase (FAT), and acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase (ACC), which are lipogenic factors. In addition, it inhibited the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) involved in cell proliferation and activation of early differentiation transcription factors in the mitotic clonal expansion (MCE) stage. As a result, ergosterol peroxide significantly inhibited the synthesis of triglycerides and differentiation of 3T3-L1 cells, and is, therefore, a possibile prophylactic and therapeutic agent for obesity and related metabolic diseases.

Ganoderma lucidum Polysaccharide Enzymatic Hydrolysate Suppresses the Growth of Human Colon Cancer Cells via Inducing Apoptosis

Ganoderma lucidum is a popular traditional Chinese medicine used in China to improve health. Previous researches have revealed that the polysaccharide from G. lucidum could exert diversity activities, including immunomodulation, antioxidant, and antitumor effects. However, the effect of enzymatically hydrolyzed G. lucidum polysaccharide (EGLP) in colorectal cancer (CRC) progression remains unknown. The present research aimed to investigate the antitumor mechanism of EGLP in human colon cancer cells. For this purpose, the cytotoxic effects of EGLP were measured by the (3-(4,5)-dimethylthiahiazo (-z-y1)-3,5-di-phenytetrazoliumromide (MTT) method. The apoptosis was evoked upon EGLP treatment, which was assayed using flow cytometry. The results indicated that EGLP may induce apoptosis in human colon cancer cell (HCT-116) cells via the upregulation of BCL-2 associated X protein (Bax), phospho-extracellular regulated protein kinases (P-ERK), and cleaved caspase-3 expression and downregulation of B-cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2), phospho-serine/threonine kinase 1 (p-Akt1), and cyclo-oxygen-ase (COX-2) expression. The obtained findings indicated EGLP as a new therapeutic agent in fighting CRC.

Synergistic immuno-modulatory activity in human macrophages of a medicinal mushroom formulation consisting of Reishi, Shiitake and Maitake

A key characteristic of mushroom polysaccharides that elicit an immunomodulatory response is that they are rich in β-glucans and low in α-glucans. In this study we analysed nine commercially available preparations from three mushroom species, Reishi (Ganoderma lucidum), Shiitake (Lentinula edodes) and Maitake (Grifola frondosa), for β- and α-glucan content. Based on β- and α-glucan content we selected three extracts to combine into a formula and evaluated the ability of the individual extracts and formula to impact on the expression of cytokines IL-1α, IL-6, IL-10 and TNF-α in human macrophages with and without LPS stimulation. The majority of mushroom extracts and the formula were found to be highly potent immuno-stimulators possessing EC50 values lower than 100 μg/mL. Interestingly the mushroom formula had lower EC50 values in TNF-α expression from LPS stimulated macrophages compared to the individual extracts, suggesting a potential synergistic effect of the mushroom formula. A response additivity graph and curve-shift analysis illustrated that indeed the mushroom formula exhibited an immuno-stimulatory synergistic effect on the expression of the majority of cytokines evaluated in both LPS stimulated and non-stimulated human macrophages, with IL-10 having an antagonistic response. This study represents the first report of a synergistic immuno-modulatory response in human macrophages elicited from a mushroom formula rationally derived from β- and α-glucan content.

Quercetin Synergistically Inhibit EBV-Associated Gastric Carcinoma with Ganoderma lucidum Extracts

Mycotherapy has been shown to improve the overall response rate during cancer treatment and reduce some chemotherapy-related adverse events. Ganoderma lucidum is a traditional mushroom used for pharmaceutical purposes. G. lucidum extracts (GLE) showed potential antitumor activities against several cancers. These tumor inhibitory effects of GLE were attributed to the suppression of the proliferation and metastasis of cancer cells. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-associated gastric carcinoma (EBVaGC) is defined as the monoclonal proliferation of carcinoma cells with latent EBV infection. The inhibitory effects of GLE against EBVaGC are questionable. The aim of this study was to investigate GLE as potential antitumor agents and a counterpart of quercetin (QCT) for the cotreatment in suppressing EBVaGC development. Therefore, this study conducted antitumor assays using a EBVaGC xenograft mice model and found that GLE could suppress tumor development. These inhibitory effects were significantly augmented by the low concentration of the quercetin (QCT) cotreatment in the xenograft mice. The addition of GLE in low concentrations synergistically reinforced QCT-induced apoptosis and EBV lytic reactivation. GLE contains various polysaccharides and triterpenes, such as ganoderic acid. Interestingly, the addition of ganoderic acid A (GAA) could produce similar bioactive effects like GLE in QCT-mediated antitumor activity. The GAA addition in low concentrations synergistically reinforced QCT-induced apoptosis and EBV lytic reactivation. GAA was sufficiently effective as much as GLE. Therefore, our results suggested that QCT-supplemented GLE could be a potential food adjunct for the prevention of EBVaGC development.

Effects of Fungal Polysaccharide on Oxidative Damage and TLR4 Pathway to the Central Immune Organs in Cadmium Intoxication in Chickens

Cadmium (Cd) can cause animal organism damage, but there have been few studies on the damage of cadmium to the immune organs of birds. Most fungal polysaccharide has antioxidant and immunomodulatory effects. The experimental study investigated the effects of fungal polysaccharide (Agaricus blazei Murill polysaccharide and Ganoderma luciduccharide) on the oxidative damage of central immune organs (thymus and bursa of Fabricius) and on the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) pathway in cadmium-poisoned chickens. The results showed that Agaricus blazei polysaccharide and Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide can reduce cadmium content, TLR4 expression, inflammatory factor (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α) content, and lipid peroxidation product MDA content and increase the activity of antioxidant enzymes SOD and GSH-Px in thymus and bursa of cadmium poisoning chickens. Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide could decrease the expression of TLR4, IL-1β, and IL-6 in cadmium poisoning peripheral blood lymphocytes of chicken, and TLR4 inhibitor had the same effect. The results demonstrated the protective effects of Agaricus blazei Murill polysaccharide and Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides on the damage of the central immune organs of chickens caused by cadmium poisoning were closely related to the TLR4 signaling pathway and oxidative stress.

Facile Nanolization Strategy for Therapeutic Ganoderma Lucidum Spore Oil to Achieve Enhanced Protection against Radiation-Induced Heart Disease

Radiotherapy (RT) has been extensively utilized for clinical cancer therapy, however, excessive generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is becoming a main cause for radiation-induced heart disease (RIHD). Ganoderma lucidum spore oil (GLSO) is a popular functional food composite with potent antioxidant activity, but it is compromised by poor solubility and stability for further application. Therefore, a strategy for rational fabrication of GLSO@P188/PEG400 nanosystem (NS) is demonstrated in this study to realize good water solubility and achieve enhanced protection against RIHD. As expected, GLSO@P188/PEG400 NS can attenuate X-ray-induced excessive ROS levels thanks to its enhanced free radical scavenging capability, simultaneously protecting on mitochondria from X-ray irradiation (IR). Moreover, GLSO@P188/PEG400 NS alleviates DNA damage and promotes self-repair processes against IR, thus recovering G0/G1 proportion back to normal levels. Furthermore, pre- and post-treated GLSO@P188/PEG400 NS demonstrates potential protection on heart from X-rays in vivo, as evidenced by attenuating cardiac dysfunction and myocardial fibrosis. Meanwhile, the cell antioxidant capacity (including T-SOD, MDA, and GSH-x) stays in balance during this process. This study not only provides a promising strategy for facile nanolization of functional food composites with hydrophobic defects but also sheds light on their cardiac protection and action mechanisms against IR-induced disease.

Effective Radiotherapy in Tumor Assisted by Ganoderma lucidum Polysaccharide-Conjugated Bismuth Sulfide Nanoparticles through Radiosensitization and Dendritic Cell Activation

Radiotherapy is a traditional method for cancer therapy but may become ineffective likely due to the radiation-induced immunosuppression. Instead of simply increasing the radiation dose, reactivation of immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment is an alternative strategy for successful cancer treatment. In this work, we synthesized bismuth sulfide nanoparticles (BiNP) and conjugated with immunoactive Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide (GLP). GLP-BiNP were able to increase the sensitivity of radiotherapy, attributing to the efficient X-ray absorption of bismuth element. BiNP alone can mildly activate dendritic cells (DC) in vitro, while GLP-BiNP further enhanced the level of DC maturation, shown as the increase in phenotypic maturation markers, cytokine release, acid phosphatase activity, and T cell proliferation in DC/T cell co-culture. Compared to BiNP, GLP-BiNP altered the tissue distribution with faster accumulation in the tumor. Meanwhile, mature DC greatly increased in both tumor and spleen by GLP-BiNP within 24 h. GLP-BiNP combination with radiation achieved remarkable inhibition of tumor growth through apoptosis. Alternatively, lung metastasis was largely prohibited by GLP-BiNP, shown as a reduced amount of tumor nodules and cancer cell invasion by pathological findings. Mechanistically, GLP-BiNP altered the tumor immunosuppression microenvironment by preferably increasing the number of intratumor CD8⁺ T cell proliferation, as well as the improved immunobalance shown as the increased serum interferon-γ/interleukin-4 ratio. Specifically, GLP conjugation seemed to protect the kidney from injury occasionally introduced by bare BiNP. As a result, GLP-BiNP play a dual role in tumor treatment through radiosensitization and immunoactivities.