UPLC-ESI-MS/MS-based widely targeted metabolomics reveals differences in metabolite composition among four Ganoderma species

The Chinese name "Lingzhi" refers to Ganoderma genus, which are increasingly used in the food and medical industries. Ganoderma species are often used interchangeably since the differences in their composition are not known. To find compositional metabolite differences among Ganoderma species, we conducted a widely targeted metabolomics analysis of four commonly used edible and medicinal Ganoderma species based on ultra performance liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry. Through pairwise comparisons, we identified 575-764 significant differential metabolites among the species, most of which exhibited large fold differences. We screened and analyzed the composition and functionality of the advantageous metabolites in each species. Ganoderma lingzhi advantageous metabolites were mostly related to amino acids and derivatives, as well as terpenes, G. sinense to terpenes, and G. leucocontextum and G. tsugae to nucleotides and derivatives, alkaloids, and lipids. Network pharmacological analysis showed that SRC, GAPDH, TNF, and AKT1 were the key targets of high-degree advantage metabolites among the four Ganoderma species. Analysis of Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes demonstrated that the advantage metabolites in the four Ganoderma species may regulate and participate in signaling pathways associated with diverse cancers, Alzheimer's disease, and diabetes. Our findings contribute to more targeted development of Ganoderma products in the food and medical industries.

Antibacterial lanostane triterpenoids from Ganoderma tsugae

A phytochemical investigation on the 80% EtOH extract of the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma tsugae resulted into the isolation of two previously undescribed lanostane triterpenoids, 7,11-dioxo-3β-acetyloxy-26,27-dihydroxy-lanosta-8,24-diene (1) and 7,20-dioxo-3β-acetyloxy-11β,15α-dihydroxy-22,23,24,25,26,27-hexanorlanosta-8-ene (2), togeher with one known lanostane triterpenoid ganodermanontriol (3). Structural elucidation of all the compounds were performed by spectral methods such as 1D and 2D (1H-1H COSY, HMQC, and HMBC) NMR spectroscopy. All the triterpenoids were in vitro evaluated for their antibacterial activities against six pathogenic microorganisms. Compound 3 exhibited some activities against three Gram positive bacteria with MIC values less than 30 μg/ml.

Hepatoprotective Activity of Ethanol Extract of Rice Solid-State Fermentation of Ganoderma tsugae against CCl4-Induced Acute Liver Injury in Mice

Ganoderma tsugae is well known as a medicinal mushroom in China and many Asian countries, while its fermentation technique and corresponding pharmacological activity are rarely reported. In this study, a wild G. tsugae strain (G42) with high triterpenoid content was screened from nine strains by rice solid-state fermentation, and 53.86 mg/g triterpenoids could be produced under optimized conditions; that is, inoculation amount 20%, fermentation temperature 27 °C, and culture time 45 days. The hepatoprotective activity of G42 ethanol extract was evaluated by CCl₄-induced liver injury in mice, in which changes in the levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), oxidation-related factors, and inflammatory cytokines in serum or liver samples demonstrated the therapeutic effect. In addition, the ethanol extract of G42 reduced the incidence of necrosis and inflammatory infiltration, and decreased protein expression levels of phosphor-nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), interleukin-Iβ (IL-1β), and nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (NRF2). The chemical composition of the ethanol extract was analyzed by high-resolution mass spectrometry and molecular networking. Three main triterpenoids, namely platycodigenin, cucurbitacin IIb, and ganolecidic acid B were identified. This work provided an optimized fermentation method for G. tsugae, and demonstrated that its fermentation extract might be developed as a functional food with a hepatoprotective effect.

Ganoderma tsugae suppresses the proliferation of endometrial carcinoma cells via Akt signaling pathway

Ganoderma is one of the common medicinal mushrooms in traditional Chinese medicine. Previous researches have unveiled the multifaceted biological activity of Ganoderma extract. Ganoderma tsugae has been investigated the potential on curing prostate, colon, lung, epidermoid, breast and ovarian cancers, but not including endometrial cancer. Endometrial cancer is a gynecological malignant tumor with serious drug resistance problem in clinical cancer treatment. This study aimed to demonstrate the first study of Ganoderma on treating endometrial cancer. The Ganoderma tsugae ethanol extract (GTEE) could suppress the proliferation of endometrial cancer cells HEC-1-A, KLE, and AN3 CA. GTEE also induced G1/S phase arrest and mitochondria-mediated apoptosis in endometrial cancer cells. Furthermore, the Akt signaling pathway could be suppressed by GTEE. Therefore, our results suggest for the first time that GTEE has the potential to be an adjuvant therapeutic agent in the treatment of endometrial cancer.

Chinese Herbal Medicine Ganoderma tsugae Displays Potential Anti-Cancer Efficacy on Metastatic Prostate Cancer Cells

Resistance to the current therapies is the main clinical challenge in the treatment of lethal metastatic prostate cancer (mPCa). Developing novel therapeutic approaches with effective regimes and minimal side effects for this fatal disease remain a priority in prostate cancer study. In the present study, we demonstrated that a traditional Chinese medicine, quality-assured Ganoderma tsugae ethanol extract (GTEE), significantly suppressed cell growth and metastatic capability and caused cell cycle arrest through decreasing expression of cyclins in mPCa cells, PC-3 and DU145 cells. GTEE also induced caspase-dependent apoptosis in mPCa cells. We further showed the potent therapeutic efficacy of GTEE by inhibiting subcutaneous PC-3 tumor growth in a xenograft model. The in vitro and in vivo efficacies on mPCa cells were due to blockade of the PI3K/Akt and MAPK/ERK signaling pathways associated with cancer cell growth, survival and apoptosis. These preclinical data provide the molecular basis for a new potential therapeutic approach toward the treatment of lethal prostate cancer progression.

Ganoderma tsugae Inhibits the SREBP-1/AR Axis Leading to Suppression of Cell Growth and Activation of Apoptosis in Prostate Cancer Cells

Recent research suggests that the activation of lipid biosynthesis (lipogenesis) is linked with prostate cancer (PCa) malignancy. Sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1 (SREBP-1) is a key transcriptional regulator controlling lipogenesis. Moreover, androgen receptor (AR) has been well defined to play an important role in lethal PCa aggressiveness from androgen-responsive to castration-resistant status. In this study, we showed that the quality-assured Ganoderma tsugae ethanol extract (GTEE), a Chinese natural and herbal product, significantly inhibited expression of SREBP-1 and its downstream genes associated with lipogenesis in PCa cells. Through inhibiting SREBP-1, GTEE reduced the levels of intracellular fatty acids and lipids in PCa cells. Importantly, GTEE also downregulated the expression of AR and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) in both androgen-responsive and castration-resistant PCa cells. By blocking the SREBP-1/AR axis, GTEE suppressed cell growth and progressive behaviors, as well as activating the caspase-dependent apoptotic pathway in PCa cells. These data provide a new molecular basis of GTEE for the development of a potential therapeutic approach to treat PCa malignancy.

Proteomic profiling of Ganoderma tsugae ethanol extract-induced adipogenesis displaying browning features

Ganoderma is classified as a top grade traditional Chinese medicine for promoting human health by regulating 'vital energy'. Its potency towards metabolism and energy homeostasis, particularly, metabolic adaptations of adipocytes, needs to be re-evaluated through an evidence-based study. Here, the triterpenoid-rich Ganoderma tsugae ethanol extract (GTEE) was found to contribute towards adipogenesis accompanied with elevated intracellular lipid metabolic flux. Additionally, proteomic profiling revealed GTEE-upregulated mitochondrial remodeling and chemical energy redox modifications, which display UCP1-positive browning fat-selective features and a NADH-mediated adaptive mechanism. GTEE-treated mice with diet-induced obesity also resulted in the amelioration of white adipocyte hypertrophy and the appearance of UCP1-positive browning adipocytes. Our novel findings unravel that GTEE could promote intracellular metabolic flexibility and plasticity followed by the induction of adipocyte browning.

Importance of a Laccase Gene (Lcc1) in the Development of Ganoderma tsugae

In this study, a novel laccase gene (Lcc1) from Ganoderma tsugae was isolated and its functions were characterized in detail. The results showed that Lcc1 has the highest expression activity during mycelium development and fruit body maturation based on the analysis of Lcc1 RNA transcripts at different developmental stages of G. tsugae. To investigate the exact contribution of Lcc1 to mycelium and fruit body development in G. tsugae, Lcc1 transgenic strains were constructed by targeted gene replacement and over-expression approaches. The results showed that the lignin degradation rate in Lcc1 deletion mutant was much lower than the degradation efficiency of the wild-type (WT), over-expression and rescue strains. The lignin degradation activity of G. tsugae is dependent on Lcc1 and the deletion of Lcc1 exerted detrimental influences on the development of mycelium branch. Furthermore, the study uncovered that Lcc1 deletion mutants generated much shorter pale grey fruit bodies, suggesting that Lcc1 contributes directly to pigmentation and stipe elongation during fruit body development in G. tsugae. The information obtained in this study provides a novel and mechanistic insight into the specific role of Lcc1 during growth and development of G. tsugae.

Triterpenoids and an alkamide from Ganoderma tsugae

Ganoderma tsugae is a medicinal mushroom. In a continual study on the bioactive constituents of this fungus, a new lanostanoid, 3β-acetoxy-16α-hydroxy-24ξ-methyl-5α-lanosta-8,25-dien-21-oic acid, named tsugaric acid F (1) and a novel palmitamide, N-(3'α,4'β-dihydroxy-2'β-(hydroxymethyl)-1'β-(cyclobutyl)palmitamide (2) were isolated and characterized from the fruit bodies of G. tsugae, and three novel seco-lanostanoids, 3,4-seco-8α,9α-epoxy-5α-lanosta-21-oic acid 3,4 lactone (5), 3,4-seco-5β-lanosta-7,9(11),4(29)-trien-3,21-dioic acid-3-methyl ester (6), 3,4-seco-5β-lanosta-7,9(11),4(29)-trien-3,21-dioic acid (7), and a known compound, 3-oxo-5α-lanosta-8-en-21-oic acid (4) were prepared from 3. The structures of new compounds, 1, 2, 5-7 were determined by spectroscopic methods. Compounds 1 and 4 showed inhibitory effects on xanthine oxidase (XO) with an IC50 values of 313.3 ± 80.0 and 43.9 ± 29.9 μM, respectively when 7 exhibited potent inhibitory effect on superoxide anion generation in rat neutrophils stimulated with formyl-Met-Leu-Phe (fMLP)/cytochalasin B (CB) with an IC50 values of 1.3 ± 0.2 μM. Compounds 4-7 showed weak cytotoxic activities against PC3 cells. These results indicated that 4 and 7 may be used as cancer chemopreventive agents.

Preparation of nano/submicrometer Ganoderma tsugae and its mutagenic potencies and cytotoxicity

This study explored the feasibility of preparing nano/submicrometer particles from Ganoderma tsugae to enhance the contents of bioactive compounds and to assess its mutagenic potencies and cytotoxicity. Hot-water extract, a common product, was employed as a reference. After 3 h of media milling, almost all of the particles were smaller than 1 μm with a number-mean diameter of 0.11 μm. There were about 62% particles smaller than 0.1 μm in terms of number of particles. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) confirmed the presence of particles at nano/submicrometer scale. The content of 1→3-β-D-glucan in nano/submicrometer G. tsugae was 3.5 times of that in hot-water extract. Both nano/submicrometer and hot-water extract G. tsugae exhibited no mutagenic potential to Salmonella Typhimurium tester strains. Cell toxicity test also confirmed the safety of both nano/submicrometer and hot-water extract G. tsugae. The effect of media milling on the structural change of hyphae was also discussed.