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Rahaman M, Roy A, Chouhan P, Das KC, Rana MJ. Revisiting the predisposing, enabling, and need factors of unsafe abortion in India using the Heckman Probit model. J Biosoc Sci 2024; 56:459-479. [PMID: 37982282 DOI: 10.1017/s002193202300024x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2023]
Abstract
Unsafe abortion refers to induced abortions performed without trained medical assistance. While previous studies have investigated predictors of unsafe abortion in India, none have addressed these factors with accounting sample selection bias. This study aims to evaluate the contributors to unsafe abortion in India by using the latest National Family Health Survey data conducted during 2019-2021, incorporating the adjustment of sample selection bias. The study included women aged 15 to 49 who had terminated their most recent pregnancy within five years prior to the survey (total weighted sample (N) = 4,810). Descriptive and bivariate statistics and the Heckman Probit model were employed. The prevalence of unsafe abortion in India was 31%. Key predictors of unsafe abortion included women's age, the gender composition of their living children, gestation stage, family planning status, and geographical region. Unsafe abortions were typically performed in the early stages of gestation, often involving self-administered medication. The primary reasons cited were unintended pregnancies and health complications. This study underscores the urgent need for targeted interventions that take into account regional, demographic, and social dynamics influencing abortion practices in India.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margubur Rahaman
- Department of Migration & Urban Studies, International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai, India
| | - Avijit Roy
- Department of Geography, University of Gour Banga, West Bengal, India
| | - Pradip Chouhan
- Department of Geography, Malda College, West Bengal, India
| | - Kailash Chandra Das
- Department of Migration & Urban Studies, International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai, India
| | - Md Juel Rana
- Govind Ballabh Pant Social Science Institute (GBPSSI), Allahabad, India
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Rana MJ, Zaman F, Ray T, Sarker R. EV Hosting Capacity Enhancement in a Community Microgrid Through Dynamic Price Optimization-Based Demand Response. IEEE Trans Cybern 2023; 53:7431-7442. [PMID: 36044506 DOI: 10.1109/tcyb.2022.3196651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Community microgrids, as an emerging technology, offer resiliency in operation for smart grids. Microgrids are seeing an increased penetration of eco-friendly electric vehicles (EVs) in recent years. However, the uncontrolled charging of EVs can easily overwhelm such electric networks. In this work, we propose an efficient demand response (DR) scheme based on dynamic pricing to enhance the capacity of the microgrid to securely host a large number of EVs. A hierarchical two-level optimization framework is introduced to realize the DR scheme. At the upper level, the dynamic prices for the participating users in DR are optimized while at the lower level, each user optimizes its energy consumption based on the price signal from the upper level. An evolutionary algorithm and a mixed-integer linear programming model is employed to solve the upper and lower level problems, respectively. Energy scheduling problems of the users are solved in a distributed manner which adds to the scalability of the approach. The proposed DR scheme is tested on a microgrid system adopted from the IEEE European low-voltage distribution network. Numerical experiments confirm the effectiveness of the proposed DR scheme compared to the benchmark pricing policies from the literature.
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Rahaman M, Roy A, Latif MA, Rana MJ, Chouhan P, Das KC. Re-examining the Nexus Between Maternal Smoking Behavior and Under-Five Children's ARI in India: A Comprehensive Study. Environ Health Insights 2023; 17:11786302231200997. [PMID: 37766736 PMCID: PMC10521266 DOI: 10.1177/11786302231200997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
Background The burden of acute respiratory infections (ARIs) among children under-five is a serious concern in lower and middle-income countries (LMICs), including India, where it is positively associated with indoor smoking exposures. This study re-examines the impact of maternal smoking on ARIs among children under 5 in India, considering other indoor air pollutant factors and covariates. The aim is to establish existing findings and capture any differentials in results using comprehensive analytical approaches. Methods Data from the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5), 2019 - 21, was used. Descriptive statistics, bivariate analysis, multivariable logistic regression models, and interaction analysis were applied to accomplish the study objective. Results The adjusted likelihood of ARI was 1.24 (95% CI: 1.04-1.48) times higher in under-five children with smoking mothers than those with non-smoking mothers. The result was also observed to be almost similar across all seasons. Moreover, the combined effect of maternal smoking with other household members smoking and using unclean cooking fuel without a separate ventilated kitchen escalated the risk (AOR: 2.01; 95% CI: 1.98-2.67). Breastfeeding was found to be a preventive measure for reducing the risk of indoor smoking exposure. The children who were never breastfed and were born large or small were more susceptible to maternal smoking. Conclusion The study highlights the association between maternal smoking and ARIs in Indian under-five children. Interventions include reducing maternal smoking, promoting breastfeeding, and improving respiratory health in fuel-exposed households.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margubur Rahaman
- Department of Migration & Urban Studies, International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
| | - Avijit Roy
- Department of Geography, Malda College, Malda, West Bengal, India
| | - Md Abdul Latif
- Department of Statistics, Liberal College, Manipur University, Luwangsangbam, Imphal, Manipur, India
| | - Md Juel Rana
- Govind Ballabh Pant Social Science Institute, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Pradip Chouhan
- Department of Geography, University of Gour Banga, Malda, West Bengal, India
| | - Kailash Chandra Das
- Department of Migration & Urban Studies, International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India
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Jain A, Rajpal S, Rana MJ, Kim R, Subramanian SV. Small area variations in four measures of poverty among Indian households: Econometric analysis of National Family Health Survey 2019-2021. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 2023; 10:18. [PMID: 36687775 PMCID: PMC9843689 DOI: 10.1057/s41599-023-01509-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
India has seen enormous reductions in poverty in the past few decades. However, much of this progress has been unequal throughout the country. This paper examined the 2019-2021 National Family Health Survey to examine small area variations in four measures of household poverty. Overall, the results show that clusters and states were the largest sources of variation for the four measures of poverty. These findings also show persistent within-district inequality when examining the bottom 10th wealth percentile, bottom 20th wealth percentile, and multidimensional poverty. Thus, these findings pinpoint the precise districts where between-cluster inequality in poverty is most prevalent. This can help guide policy makers in terms of targeting policies aimed at reducing poverty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anoop Jain
- Global Health & Social Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115 USA
| | - Sunil Rajpal
- Interdisciplinary Program in Precision Public Health, Department of Public Health Sciences, Graduate School of Korea University, Seoul, South Korea
- Department of Economics, FLAME University, Pune, India
| | - Md Juel Rana
- G B Pant Social Science Institute, Prayagraj, India
| | - Rockli Kim
- Division of Health Policy & Management, College of Health Science, Korea University, 145 Anam-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul, 02841 South Korea
| | - S. V. Subramanian
- Harvard Center for Population and Development Studies, Cambridge, MA 02138 USA
- Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115 USA
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Lee HY, Rana MJ, Kim R, Subramanian SV. Small Area Variation in the Quality of Maternal and Newborn Care in India. JAMA Netw Open 2022; 5:e2242666. [PMID: 36441555 PMCID: PMC9706367 DOI: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.42666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE In India, the district serves as the primary policy unit for implementing and allocating resources for various programs aimed at improving key developmental and health indicators. Recent evidence highlights that high-quality care for mothers and newborns is critical to reduce preventable mortality. However, the geographic variation in maternal and newborn health service quality has never been investigated. OBJECTIVE To examine the variation between smaller areas within districts in the quality of maternal and newborn care in India. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS This cross-sectional study assessed data from women aged 15 to 49 years on the most recent birth (singleton or multiples) in the 5 years that preceded the fifth National Family Health Survey (June 17, 2019, to April 30, 2021). EXPOSURES Maternal and newborn care in 36 states and union territories (UTs), 707 districts, and 28 113 clusters (small areas) in India. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES The composite quality score of maternal and newborn care was defined as the proportion of components of care received of the total 11 essential components of antenatal and postnatal care. Four-level logistic and linear regression was used for analyses of individual components of care and composite score, respectively. Precision-weighted prevalence of each component of care and mean composite score across districts as well as their between-small area SD were calculated. RESULTS The final analytic sample for the composite score was composed of 123 257 births nested in 28 113 small areas, 707 districts, and 36 states/UTs. For the composite score, 58.3% of the total geographic variance was attributable to small areas, 29.3% to states and UTs, and 12.4% to districts. Of 11 individual components of care, the small areas accounted for the largest proportion of geographic variation for 6 individual components of care (ranging from 42.3% for blood pressure taken to 73.0% for tetanus injection), and the state/UT was the largest contributor for 4 components of care (ranging from 41.7% for being weighed to 52.3% for ultrasound test taken). District-level composite score and prevalence of individual care components and their variation across small areas within the districts showed a consistently strong negative correlation (Spearman rank correlation ρ = -0.981 to -0.886). Low-quality scores and large between-small area disparities were not necessarily concentrated in aspirational districts (mean district composite score [SD within districts], 92.7% [2.1%] among aspirational districts and 93.7% [1.8%] among nonaspirational districts). CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE The findings of this cross-sectional study suggest that the policy around maternal and child health care needs to be designed more precisely to consider district mean and between-small area heterogeneity in India. This study may have implications for other low- and middle-income countries seeking to improve maternal and newborn outcomes, particularly for large countries with geographic heterogeneity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hwa-Young Lee
- Department of Global Health and Population, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
- Institute of Convergence Science, Convergence Science Academy, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Md Juel Rana
- Korea University Research and Business Foundation, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Rockli Kim
- Division of Health Policy and Management, College of Health Science, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea
- Interdisciplinary Program in Precision Public Health, Department of Public Health Sciences, Graduate School of Korea University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - S. V. Subramanian
- Harvard Center for Population and Development Studies, Cambridge, Massachusetts
- Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
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Rajpal S, Kumar A, Rana MJ, Kim R, Subramanian SV. Small area variation in severe, moderate, and mild anemia among women and children: A multilevel analysis of 707 districts in India. Front Public Health 2022; 10:945970. [PMID: 36203697 PMCID: PMC9530333 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2022.945970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
India is home to the highest global number of women and children suffering from anemia, with one in every two women impacted. India's current strategy for targeting areas with a high anemia burden is based on district-level averages, yet this fails to capture the substantial small area variation in micro-geographical (small area) units such as villages. We conducted statistical and econometric analyses to quantify the extent of small area variation in the three grades of anemia (severe, moderate, and mild) among women and children across 36 states/union territories and 707 districts of India. We utilized data from the fifth round of the National Family Health Survey conducted in 2019-21. The final analytic sample for analyses was 183,883 children aged 6-59 months and 690,153 women aged 15-49 years. The primary outcome variable for the analysis was the three anemia grades among women and children. We adopted a three-level and four-level logistic regression model to compute variance partitioning of anemia among women and children. We also computed precision-weighted prevalence estimates of women and childhood anemia across 707 districts and within-district, between-cluster variation using standard deviation (SD). For severe anemia among women, small area (villages or urban blocks) account for highest share (46.1%; Var: 0.494; SE: 0.150) in total variation followed by states (39.4%; Var: 0.422; SE: 0.134) and districts (12.8%; Var: 0.156; SE: 0.012). Similarly, clusters account for the highest share in the variation in severe (61.3%; Var: 0.899; SE: 0.069) and moderate (46.4%: Var: 0.398; SE: 0.011) anemia among children. For mild and moderate anemia among women, however, states were the highest source of variation. Additionally, we found a high and positive correlation between mean prevalence and inter-cluster SD of moderate and severe anemia among women and children. In contrast, the correlation was weaker for mild anemia among women (r = 0.61) and children (0.66). In this analysis, we are positing the critical importance of small area variation within districts when designing strategies for targeting high burden areas for anemia interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunil Rajpal
- Interdisciplinary Program in Precision Public Health, Department of Public Health Sciences, Graduate School of Korea University, Seoul, South Korea,Department of Economics, FLAME University, Pune, India
| | - Akhil Kumar
- Turner Fenton Secondary School, Brampton, ON, Canada
| | - Md Juel Rana
- Korea University Research and Business Foundation, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Rockli Kim
- Interdisciplinary Program in Precision Public Health, Department of Public Health Sciences, Graduate School of Korea University, Seoul, South Korea,Division of Health Policy and Management, College of Health Science, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea,Harvard Center for Population and Development Studies, Cambridge, MA, United States,*Correspondence: Rockli Kim
| | - S. V. Subramanian
- Harvard Center for Population and Development Studies, Cambridge, MA, United States,Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States
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Rana MJ, Kim R, Ko S, Dwivedi LK, James KS, Sarwal R, Subramanian SV. Small area variations in low birth weight and small size of births in India. Maternal & Child Nutrition 2022; 18:e13369. [PMID: 35488416 PMCID: PMC9218305 DOI: 10.1111/mcn.13369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2022] [Revised: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The states and districts are the primary focal points for policy formulation and programme intervention in India. The within‐districts variation of key health indicators is not well understood and consequently underemphasised. This study aims to partition geographic variation in low birthweight (LBW) and small birth size (SBS) in India and geovisualize the distribution of small area estimates. Applying a four‐level logistic regression model to the latest round of the National Family Health Survey (2015–2016) covering 640 districts within 36 states and union territories of India, the variance partitioning coefficient and precision‐weighted prevalence of LBW (<2.5 kg) and SBS (mother's self‐report) were estimated. For each outcome, the spatial distribution by districts of mean prevalence and small area variation (as measured by standard deviation) and the correlation between them were computed. Of the total valid sample, 17.6% (out of 193,345 children) had LBW and 12.4% (out of 253,213 children) had SBS. The small areas contributed the highest share of total geographic variance in LBW (52%) and SBS (78%). The variance of LBW attributed to small areas was unevenly distributed across the regions of India. While a strong correlation between district‐wide percent and within‐district standard deviation was identified in both LBW (r = 0.88) and SBS (r = 0.87), they were not necessarily concentrated in the aspirational districts. We find the necessity of precise policy attention specifically to the small areas in the districts of India with a high prevalence of LBW and SBS in programme formulation and intervention that may be beneficial to improve childbirth outcomes. The small areas contribute the highest share of the total geographic variance of low birth weight (LBW) and small birth size (SBS) in India. A high burden of LBW is found mostly in the central‐western part of India and Odisha. The prevalence of SBS is high across the district of northern‐western regions and the north‐eastern regions of India. The mean prevalence and standard deviation are strongly correlated in the case of both LBW (r = 0.88) and SBS (r = 0.87) in India. It indicates that the districts which have a higher prevalence of LBW and SBS also have a higher between small area disparity within the districts. We find a similar pattern of distribution in LBW and SBS between the policy‐focused aspirational districts and other districts of India. Findings indicate reprioritizing the policy intervention, focusing on the small areas of India for better childbirth outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Juel Rana
- International Institute for Population Sciences Mumbai Maharashtra India
| | - Rockli Kim
- Division of Health Policy and Management, College of Health Science Korea University Seoul South Korea
- Interdisciplinary Program in Precision Public Health, Department of Public Health Sciences Graduate School of Korea University Seoul South Korea
| | - Soohyeon Ko
- Interdisciplinary Program in Precision Public Health, Department of Public Health Sciences Graduate School of Korea University Seoul South Korea
| | - Laxmi K. Dwivedi
- International Institute for Population Sciences Mumbai Maharashtra India
| | - K. S. James
- International Institute for Population Sciences Mumbai Maharashtra India
| | - Rakesh Sarwal
- National Institution for Transforming India (NITI) Aayog, Government of India New Delhi India
| | - S. V. Subramanian
- Harvard Center for Population and Development Studies Cambridge Massachusetts United States
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Rahaman M, Rana MJ, Roy A, Chouhan P. Spatial heterogeneity and socio-economic correlates of unmet need for spacing contraception in India: Evidences from National Family Health Survey, 2015-16. Clinical Epidemiology and Global Health 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cegh.2022.101012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
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Pramanik M, Chowdhury K, Rana MJ, Bisht P, Pal R, Szabo S, Pal I, Behera B, Liang Q, Padmadas SS, Udmale P. Climatic influence on the magnitude of COVID-19 outbreak: a stochastic model-based global analysis. Int J Environ Health Res 2022; 32:1095-1110. [PMID: 33090891 DOI: 10.1080/09603123.2020.1831446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
We investigate the climatic influence on COVID-19 transmission risks in 228 cities globally across three climatic zones. The results, based on the application of a Boosted Regression Tree algorithm method, show that average temperature and average relative humidity explain significant variations in COVID-19 transmission across temperate and subtropical regions, whereas in the tropical region, the average diurnal temperature range and temperature seasonality significantly predict the infection outbreak. The number of positive cases showed a decrease sharply above an average temperature of 10°C in the cities of France, Turkey, the US, the UK, and Germany. Among the tropical countries, COVID-19 in Indian cities is most affected by mean diurnal temperature, and those in Brazil by temperature seasonality. The findings have implications on public health interventions, and contribute to the ongoing scientific and policy discourse on the complex interplay of climatic factors determining the risks of COVID-19 transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malay Pramanik
- Department of Development and Sustainability, School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), PO. Box 4, Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand
- entre of International Politics, Organization, and Disarmament, School of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Koushik Chowdhury
- Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur 721302, West Bengal, India
| | - Md Juel Rana
- Centre for the Study of Regional Development, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
- International Institute for Population Sciences, Govandi Station Road, Deonar, Mumbai, 400088, Maharashtra, India
| | - Praffulit Bisht
- entre of International Politics, Organization, and Disarmament, School of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Raghunath Pal
- Centre for the Study of Regional Development, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Sylvia Szabo
- Department of Social Welfare Counseling, College of Future Convergence, Dongguk University, Seoul 04620, South Korea
| | - Indrajit Pal
- Disaster Prevention, Mitigation, and Management, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), PO. Box 4, Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand
| | - Bhagirath Behera
- Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur 721302, West Bengal, India
| | - Qiuhua Liang
- School of Architecture, Building and Civil Engineering, Loughborough University, Epinal Way, Loughborough LE11 3TU, United Kingdom
| | - Sabu S Padmadas
- Department of Social Statistics and Demography, Global Health Research Institute, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom
| | - Parmeshwar Udmale
- Department of Development and Sustainability, School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), PO. Box 4, Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand
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Rahaman M, Singh R, Chouhan P, Roy A, Ajmer S, Rana MJ. Levels, patterns and determinants of using reversible contraceptives for limiting family planning in India: evidence from National Family Health Survey, 2015-16. BMC Womens Health 2022; 22:124. [PMID: 35439954 PMCID: PMC9020013 DOI: 10.1186/s12905-022-01706-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Demand for family planning is predominantly for birth limiting rather than birth spacing in India. Despite several family planning programmes in India, the use of reversible contraception for limiting family planning has been stagnant and largely depends on female sterilization. Though many researchers have examined patterns and determinants of using modern contraception for total family planning, studies on patterns and determinants of contraceptive use for birth limiting are limited in India. This paper examines the patterns of contraceptive use for liming demand and its determinants in India. Methods The National Family Health Survey-4, 2015–16 data was used. Bivariate chi-square significant test and multivariate binary logistic regression model used to accomplish the study objectives. Results Majority of women (86.5%) satisfied limiting demand (SLD) in India; the SLD was found significantly low among the women’s age 15–19 years (53.1%) and parity 0 (42%). The satisfied limiting demand by modern reversible contraception (mrSLD) was found significantly high in age group 15–19 years (49.1%), Muslims (30.6%) and North-east region (45.4%). The satisfied limiting demand by traditional contraception (tSLD) was almost three times higher in North-east region (26.1%) than national average of India (8.7%). The women’s years of schooling, wealth status, religion and presence of son child found to be significant determinants of mrSLD. The likelihood of tSLD was found significantly high among the women who had no son child (AOR = 1.41; 95% CI:1.34, 1.48), Muslim (AOR = 1.78; 95% CI:1.70, 1.87). A considerable regional variability in levels of SLD, mrSLD and tSLD was found in India. Conclusion Public investment in family planning is required to promote and provide subsidized modern reversible contraception (MRC) services, especially to women from North-east region, Muslim, Scheduled tribe, poor household and who had no son child. Improving the quality and availability of MRC services in public health centre will be helpful to increase SLD among the above mentioned women. Besides, the promotion of MRC will be supportive to overcome the issues of sterilization regrets in India. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12905-022-01706-0.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margubur Rahaman
- Department of Migration and Urban Studies, International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai, 400088, India.
| | - Risha Singh
- Centre for the Study of Regional Development (CSRD), Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Pradip Chouhan
- Department of Geography, University of Gour Banga (UGB), Malda, 732103, India
| | - Avijit Roy
- Department of Geography, University of Gour Banga (UGB), Malda, 732103, India
| | - Sumela Ajmer
- Department of Geography, Tilka Manjhi Bhagalpur University, Bhagalpur, 812001, India
| | - Md Juel Rana
- College of Health Science, Korea University, Seoul, 028401, South Korea
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Sk R, Banerjee A, Rana MJ. Nutritional status and concomitant factors of stunting among pre-school children in Malda, India: A micro-level study using a multilevel approach. BMC Public Health 2021; 21:1690. [PMID: 34530789 PMCID: PMC8447797 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-021-11704-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Malnutrition was the main cause of death among children below 5 years in every state of India in 2017. Despite several flagship programmes and schemes implemented by the Government of India, the latest edition of the Global Nutrition Report 2018 addressed that India tops in the number of stunted children, which is a matter of concern. Thus, a micro-level study was designed to know the level of nutritional status and to study this by various disaggregate levels, as well as to examine the risk factors of stunting among pre-school children aged 36–59 months in Malda. Method A primary cross-sectional quantitative survey was conducted using structured questionnaires following a multi-stage, stratified simple random sampling procedure in 2018. A sum of 731 mothers with at least one eligible child aged 36–59 months were the study participants. Anthropometric measures of children were collected following the WHO child growth standard. Children were classified as stunted, wasted, and underweight if their HAZ, WHZ, and WAZ scores, respectively, were less than −2SD. The random intercept multilevel logistic regression model has been employed to estimate the effects of possible risk factors on childhood stunting. Results The prevalence of stunting in the study area is 40% among children aged 36–59 months, which is a very high prevalence as per the WHO’s cut-off values (≥40%) for public health significance. Results of the multilevel analysis revealed that preceding birth interval, low birth weight, duration of breastfeeding, mother’s age at birth, mother’s education, and occupation are the associated risk factors of stunting. Among them, low birth weight (OR 2.22, 95% CI: 1.44–3.41) and bidi worker as mothers’ occupation (OR 1.92, 95% CI: 1.18–3.12) are the most influencing factors of stunting. Further, about 14 and 86% variation in stunting lie at community and child/household level, respectively. Conclusion Special attention needs to be placed on the modifiable risk factors of childhood stunting. Policy interventions should direct community health workers to encourage women as well as their male partners to increase birth interval using various family planning practices, provide extra care for low birth weight baby, that can help to reduce childhood stunting. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12889-021-11704-w.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rayhan Sk
- Centre for the Study of Regional Development, School of Social Sciences, JNU, New Delhi, India.
| | - Anuradha Banerjee
- Centre for the Study of Regional Development, School of Social Sciences, JNU, New Delhi, India
| | - Md Juel Rana
- International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai, India
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Rahaman M, Roy A, Chouhan P, Das KC, Rana MJ. Risk of COVID-19 Transmission and Livelihood Challenges of Stranded Migrant Labourers during Lockdown in India. Ind J Labour Econ 2021; 64:787-802. [PMID: 34483508 PMCID: PMC8409262 DOI: 10.1007/s41027-021-00327-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The lockdown during the first phase of COVID-19 pandemic in India triggered an unprecedented humanitarian crisis. Labourers in the informal sector lost their jobs overnight and were stuck at their work places. The present study examines the risk of COVID-19 transmission among stranded migrant labourers and their livelihood challenges during the lockdown. A telephonic survey was conducted during the lockdown of first wave of COVID-19 pandemic to collect information from the stranded migrant labourers. The non-probability snowball sampling technique and structured questionnaire were used to draw the sample. Simple frequency distribution and standard statistical methods were used to accomplish the study objectives. The factors of COVID-19 transmission such as poor housing, co-morbidities, poor practice of WASH and COVID-19 precautions were significantly high among the migrant labourers. The lockdown created livelihood crisis among them. For instance, ration shortage (86%), financial distress (82%), reduction of wages (13%), job loss (86%) and anxiety for COVID-19 infection (81%) were often seen. Many of the labourers did not receive any ration kits (30%) and financial assistance (86%) during lockdown. The governmental assistance to overcome the stranded migrant labourers’ challenges during lockdown was less than desirable. India needs to frame a sustainable and effective policy for social security for labourers, particularly in emergency situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margubur Rahaman
- Department of Migration and Urban Studies, International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai, 400088 India
| | - Avijit Roy
- Department of Geography, University of Gour Banga, Malda, West Bengal 732103 India
| | - Pradip Chouhan
- Department of Geography, University of Gour Banga, Malda, West Bengal 732103 India
| | - Kailash Chandra Das
- Department of Migration and Urban Studies, International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai, 400088 India
| | - Md Juel Rana
- Department of Migration and Urban Studies, International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai, 400088 India
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Rana MJ, Goli S. The road from ICPD to SDGs: Health returns of reducing the unmet need for family planning in India. Midwifery 2021; 103:103107. [PMID: 34358778 DOI: 10.1016/j.midw.2021.103107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2019] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study attempts to estimate the impact of reducing the unmet need for family planning on the key maternal and child health indicators in India from 1993 to 2016, and projecting this for the period from 2016 to 2030. DATA AND METHODS The data have been compiled from various sources such as the United Nations' World Population prospects, national family health surveys and the sample registration system. The family planning and demographic projection modules of 'Spectrum', a modular computer simulation program, were used to estimate the impact of family planning programmes on reproductive, maternal and child health outcomes in India from 1993 to 2030. RESULTS Reduction of the unmet need for family planning averted approximately 56 million unintended pregnancies, 7 million unsafe abortions and 167,000 maternal deaths between 1993 and 2016. It is expected that an additional 41 million unintended pregnancies, 5 million unsafe abortions and 124,000 maternal deaths can be avoided by reducing the unmet need for family planning to 5% by 2030. Similarly, the declining unmet need for family planning between 1993 and 2016 led to a reduction in the pregnancy rate, abortion rate, and risk-adjusted infant and under-five mortality rates by 27 per 1000 married women, 1.8 per million married women, 10 per 1000 live births and 15 per 1000 live births, respectively. It is expected that approximately 24 pregnancies per 1000 married women, 1.6 abortions per million married women, 10 risk adjusted infant deaths per 1000 live births, and 14 under-five deaths per 1000 live births can be avoided by reducing the unmet need for family planning to 5% by 2030. CONCLUSIONS The findings of this study advocate that family planning is one of the best return on-investment strategies for India to achieve several targets under the reproductive, maternal and child health-related sustainable development goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Juel Rana
- International Institute for Population Sciences, Govandi Station Road Deonar, Mumbai 400088, India; Centre for the Study of Regional Development, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India.
| | - Srinivas Goli
- Centre for the Study of Regional Development, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India; UWA Public Policy Institute and Australia India Institute, University of Western Australia, Crawley WA, Australia
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Islam S, Rana MJ, Mohanty SK. Cooking, smoking, and stunting: Effects of household air pollution sources on childhood growth in India. Indoor Air 2021; 31:229-249. [PMID: 32779283 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2020] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
This paper investigates the effects of household air pollution (HAP) on child stunting in India using a sample of 206, 898 under-five children from the latest National Family Health Survey (2015-16). Descriptive statistics and multivariate analysis were used to understand the association of stunting by type of cooking fuel, separate kitchen, and indoor smoking in the household. Using clean cooking fuels (CCFs), having a separate kitchen, and being unexposed to smoking can reduce the prevalence of stunting by 4%, 1%, and 1%, respectively, from the current prevalence of stunting (38%). The probability of childhood stunting among children living in households using unclean cooking fuel (UCF) was significantly higher (OR-1.16; 95% CI: 1.13-1.19) than those living in households using CCF. Findings were similar results in the absence of separate kitchen (OR-1.08; 95% CI: 1.05-1.10) and exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (OR-1.06; 95% CI: 1.04-1.08). Households using UCF had a 16% higher likelihood of stunting, while there was a strong gradient of HAP with stunting after controlling socioeconomic and demographic factors. Therefore, the LPG programs, such as the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana, may be crucial to reduce HAP and its adverse impact on stunting, and successively to achieve sustainable development goals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samarul Islam
- International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai, India
| | - Md Juel Rana
- International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai, India
- Centre for the Study of Regional Development, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), New Delhi, India
| | - Sanjay K Mohanty
- International Institute for Population Sciences (IIPS), Mumbai, India
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Imdad K, Sahana M, Rana MJ, Haque I, Patel PP, Pramanik M. A district-level susceptibility and vulnerability assessment of the COVID-19 pandemic's footprint in India. Spat Spatiotemporal Epidemiol 2020; 36:100390. [PMID: 33509422 PMCID: PMC7648890 DOI: 10.1016/j.sste.2020.100390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Examines the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic in India in four separate time steps. Uses geospatial and geostatistical measure to identify viral hotspots and clusters. Analyses COVID-19′s correlates at the district level, eliciting detailed outputs. Gauges epidemiological susceptibility and socioeconomic vulnerability to COVID-19. Provides a framework for denoting districts where lockdown measures can be eased.
In this study, we trace the COVID-19 pandemic's footprint across India's districts. We identify its primary epicentres and the outbreak's imprint in India's hinterlands in four separate time-steps, signifying the different lockdown stages. We also identify hotspots and predict areas where the pandemic may spread next. Significant clusters in the country's western and northern parts pose risk, along with the threat of rising numbers in the east. We also perform epidemiological and socioeconomic susceptibility and vulnerability analyses, identifying resident populations that may be physiologically weaker, leading to a high incidence of cases and pinpoint regions that may report high fatalities due to ambient poor demographic and health-related factors. Districts with a high share of urban population and high population density face elevated COVID-19 risks. Aspirational districts have a higher magnitude of transmission and fatality. Discerning such locations can allow targeted resource allocation to combat the pandemic's next phase in India.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kashif Imdad
- Department of Geography, Pandit Prithi Nath PG College (affiliated to Chhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj University), 96/12, Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Kanpur 208001, Uttar Pradesh, India.
| | - Mehebub Sahana
- School of Environment, Education and Development, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, United Kingdom.
| | - Md Juel Rana
- Centre for the Study of Regional Development, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India; International Institute for Population Sciences, Mumbai 400088, India.
| | - Ismail Haque
- Centre for the Study of Regional Development, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India; Indian Council for Research on International Economic Relations (ICRIER) Plot No. 16-17, Sector-6, Pushp Vihar Institutional Area, Saket, New Delhi 110017, India.
| | - Priyank Pravin Patel
- Department of Geography, Presidency University, 86/1, College Street, Kolkata 700073, West Bengal, India.
| | - Malay Pramanik
- Department of Development and Sustainability, School of Environment, Resources and Development, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), PO. Box 4, Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand; Centre of International Politics, Organization, and Disarmament, School of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India.
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Rana MJ, Cleland J, Sekher TV, Padmadas SS. Disentangling the effects of reproductive behaviours and fertility preferences on child growth in India. Popul Stud (Camb) 2020; 75:37-50. [PMID: 33086981 DOI: 10.1080/00324728.2020.1826564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
We analysed population data from the 2015-16 National Family Health Survey to disentangle the intricate underlying effects of reproductive behaviours and fertility preferences on child growth. We expected birth interval length to be more strongly associated with stunting than sibsize and these effects to be moderated by whether the child was wanted or unintended (mistimed/unwanted). Regression analyses showed strong and equal effects of short birth interval and sibsize on stunting, when adjusted for potential confounders and unobserved between-mother heterogeneity. There were no statistical associations between stunting and mistiming/unwantedness of index children, suggesting the absence of discrimination against such children. We conclude that while fertility preferences have no effect, reproductive behaviours exert significant influence on child growth. Sibsize has been falling for many years in India but birth interval lengths have remained largely unchanged. The results underscore the need for strengthening uptake of reversible contraceptives to enable longer birth intervals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Juel Rana
- Jawaharlal Nehru University.,International Institute for Population Sciences
| | | | - T V Sekher
- International Institute for Population Sciences
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Saroj SK, Goli S, Rana MJ, Choudhary BK. Data on water, sanitation, and hygiene in six select metro cities of India. Data Brief 2020; 29:105268. [PMID: 32090164 PMCID: PMC7025195 DOI: 10.1016/j.dib.2020.105268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Revised: 01/26/2020] [Accepted: 02/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this data article is to describe the data and provide the methodological notes on the construction of availability, accessibility, and overall Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) performance index using a set of thirteen indicators for six metro cities in India. It also presents the details on survey design and the nature of data collected on WASH indicators in India Human Development Survey for 2004-05 (IHDS-I) and 2011-12 (IHDS-II). The principal component analysis (PCA) procedure was used in the construction of the WASH indices. The IHDS is the only survey that provides comprehensive data on WASH indicators for six metro cities in India (Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Hyderabad, & Bangalore). The IHDS has been jointly conducted by researchers from the National Council of Applied Economic Research (NCAER), New Delhi and the University of Maryland, the United States of America (USA). The database is hosted in the public repository at the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR) and the reference number for IHDS-I and IHDS-II are ICPSR 22626 and ICPSR 36151 respectively. The data are publicly available through ICPSR. Interpretation of the present data can be found in the research article titled "Availability, accessibility, and inequalities of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) services in Indian metro cities" (Saroj et al., 2019) [9].
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Affiliation(s)
- Shashi Kala Saroj
- Centre for the Study of Regional Development (CSRD), School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Srinivas Goli
- Centre for the Study of Regional Development (CSRD), School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India.,Australia India Institute NGN Research Fellow, UWA Public Policy Institute, University of Western Australia (UWA), Australia
| | - Md Juel Rana
- Centre for the Study of Regional Development (CSRD), School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India.,Senior Research Officer, International Institute for Population Sciences, Govandi Station Road, Deonar, Mumbai, 400088, India
| | - Bikramaditya K Choudhary
- Centre for the Study of Regional Development (CSRD), School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Globally the trajectories of approaches in adoption and implementation of family planning programmes have varied subjecting to variation in cultural and political philosophies across the countries. Accordingly, the progress in family planning has varied over the time across the countries. OBJECTIVE This study investigates long-term trajectories of demand for family planning and contraceptive prevalence rates and tests the hypothesis of convergence across the world countries. METHODS This study used data from United Nations Population Prospects for 185 countries and regions during 1970-2015. Standard graphical, parametric and nonparametric convergence metrics have been used for testing of the convergence hypothesis. RESULTS The results suggest a substantial increase in the global average of both demand and actual prevalence of contraceptive practice across the countries, but the actual contraceptive use is yet to catch up with the demand. Our findings suggest that there is a convergence in contraceptive use across the countries, particularly since the mid-1990s. CONCLUSION A major part of the convergence in demand for family planning and contraceptive prevalence rate is due to its stalling in both developed and many developing countries and its increase in several developing and least developed countries. Family planning has a greater role in human wellbeing particularly enhancing reproductive, maternal and child health outcomes than being a mere tool for fertility reduction. Therefore, the emphasis is needed on family planning efforts in the lagged behind countries for global convergence of family planning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Juel Rana
- Centre for the Study of Regional Development, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Srinivas Goli
- Centre for the Study of Regional Development, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
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Rana MJ, Goli S. Does planning of births affect childhood undernutrition? Evidence from demographic and health surveys of selected South Asian countries. Nutrition 2018; 47:90-96. [PMID: 29429542 DOI: 10.1016/j.nut.2017.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Revised: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 10/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The prevalence of child undernutrition in South Asia is high, as is also the unmet need for family planning. In previous literature, the biodemographic relationship of family planning, particularly birth order and birth spacing, and nutritional status of children have been assessed separately. The aim of this study was to work on the hypothesis that the planning of births comprising timing, spacing, and number of births improves child undernutrition, especially in the areas with high prevalence of stunting and underweight. METHODS We used recent Demographic and Health Survey data from four selected South Asian countries. Binary logistic regression models were applied to estimate the adjusted percentage of stunting and underweight by identified independent factors. RESULTS Findings suggested that after controlling for other socioeconomic factors, children in the first birth order with >24 mo of interval between marriage and first birth have a lower risk for stunting (20%; p <0.01) and underweight (14%; p <0.05), respectively, than other scenarios of the planning of births. The probability of child undernutrition is lower among children born with >24 mo of birth spacing than its counterpart in all birth orders, but the significance of birth spacing reduces with increasing birth orders. CONCLUSION Appropriate planning of births using family planning methods in countries with high birth rates has the potential to reduce childhood undernutrition. Thus, the planning of births emerges as an important biodemographic approach to eradicate childhood undernutrition especially in developing regions like South Asia and thereby to achieve sustainable development goals by 2030.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Juel Rana
- Centre for the Study of Regional Development (CSRD), School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India.
| | - Srinivas Goli
- Centre for the Study of Regional Development (CSRD), School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
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Abstract
Family planning allows couples to anticipate and attain their desired number of children and the timing and spacing of their births. Integration of family planning services in undernutrition elimination programmes is one way to reduce undernutrition in developing countries. In this backdrop, this study assessed the association of women’s nutritional status and family planning, considering the intersectional axes of the timing, spacing and limiting of births as a proxy indicator of family planning. The study used the recent Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) data from four South Asian countries (namely, India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan) which exhibit prevalence of high malnutrition levels, poor family planning, huge adolescent fertility and shorter birth intervals among women. Along with descriptive and bivariate statistics, multinomial logistic regressions ( mlogit) and Multiple Classification Analysis (MCA) conversion models were used to estimate the adjusted percentage of nutritional outcomes by selected independent factors. The results reveal that women’s nutritional status has significant relationship with planning of births. Overall, the findings suggest that planning for timing, spacing and limiting of births can promote better nutritional status in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Juel Rana
- Doctoral student, Centre for the Study of Regional Development, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Srinivas Goli
- Assistant Professor, Centre for the Study of Regional Development, School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
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Rana MJ, Shahriar MS, Shafiullah M. Levenberg–Marquardt neural network to estimate UPFC-coordinated PSS parameters to enhance power system stability. Neural Comput Appl 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s00521-017-3156-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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