1
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Hedde PN, Abram TJ, Jain A, Nakajima R, Ramiro de Assis R, Pearce T, Jasinskas A, Toosky MN, Khan S, Felgner PL, Gratton E, Zhao W. A modular microarray imaging system for highly specific COVID-19 antibody testing. Lab Chip 2020; 20:3302-3309. [PMID: 32743622 PMCID: PMC8462184 DOI: 10.1039/d0lc00547a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/11/2020] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
To detect the presence of antibodies in blood against SARS-CoV-2 in a highly sensitive and specific manner, here we describe a robust, inexpensive ($200), 3D-printable portable imaging platform (TinyArray imager) that can be deployed immediately in areas with minimal infrastructure to read coronavirus antigen microarrays (CoVAMs) that contain a panel of antigens from SARS-CoV-2, SARS-1, MERS, and other respiratory viruses. Application includes basic laboratories and makeshift field clinics where a few drops of blood from a finger prick could be rapidly tested in parallel for the presence of antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 with a test turnaround time of only 2-4 h. To evaluate our imaging device, we probed and imaged coronavirus microarrays with COVID-19-positive and negative sera and achieved a performance on par with a commercial microarray reader 100× more expensive than our imaging device. This work will enable large scale serosurveillance, which can play an important role in the months and years to come to implement efficient containment and mitigation measures, as well as help develop therapeutics and vaccines to treat and prevent the spread of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Per Niklas Hedde
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
- Laboratory for Fluorescence Dynamics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | | | - Aarti Jain
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Rie Nakajima
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Rafael Ramiro de Assis
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Trevor Pearce
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Algis Jasinskas
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | | | - Saahir Khan
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of California Irvine Health, Orange, CA, USA
| | - Philip L Felgner
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Enrico Gratton
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
- Laboratory for Fluorescence Dynamics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Weian Zhao
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
- Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
- Edwards Life Sciences Center for Advanced Cardiovascular Technology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
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2
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Hedde PN, Bouzin M, Abram TJ, Chen X, Toosky MN, Vu T, Li Y, Zhao W, Gratton E. Rapid isolation of rare targets from large fluid volumes. Sci Rep 2020; 10:12458. [PMID: 32719382 PMCID: PMC7385493 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-69315-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Rapidly isolating rare targets from larger, clinically relevant fluid volumes remains an unresolved problem in biomedicine and diagnosis. Here, we describe how 3D particle sorting can enrich targets at ultralow concentrations over 100-fold within minutes not possible with conventional approaches. Current clinical devices based on biochemical extraction and microfluidic solutions typically require high concentrations and/or can only process sub-milliliter volumes in time. In a proof-of-concept application, we isolated bacteria from whole blood as demanded for rapid sepsis diagnosis where minimal numbers of bacteria need to be found in a 1–10 mL blood sample. After sample encapsulation in droplets and target enrichment with the 3D particle sorter within a few minutes, downstream analyses were able to identify bacteria and test for antibiotic susceptibility, information which is critical for successful treatment of bloodstream infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Per Niklas Hedde
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA. .,Department of Biochemistry, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Manoa, HI, USA.
| | - Margaux Bouzin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA.,Physics Department, Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Xiaoming Chen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | | | - Tam Vu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Yiyan Li
- Department of Physics and Engineering, Fort Lewis College, Durango, CO, USA
| | - Weian Zhao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA.,Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA.,Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA.,Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA.,Edwards Life Sciences Center for Advanced Cardiovascular Technology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA.,Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Enrico Gratton
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
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3
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Hedde PN, Abram TJ, Jain A, Nakajima R, de Assis RR, Pearce T, Jasinskas A, Toosky MN, Khan S, Felgner PL, Gratton E, Zhao W. A Modular Microarray Imaging System for Highly Specific COVID-19 Antibody Testing. bioRxiv 2020. [PMID: 32511369 PMCID: PMC7263497 DOI: 10.1101/2020.05.22.111518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
To detect the presence of antibodies in blood against SARS-CoV-2 in a highly sensitive and specific manner, here we describe a robust, inexpensive ($200), 3D-printable portable imaging platform (TinyArray imager) that can be deployed immediately in areas with minimal infrastructure to read coronavirus antigen microarrays (CoVAMs) that contain a panel of antigens from SARS-CoV-2, SARS-1, MERS, and other respiratory viruses. Application includes basic laboratories and makeshift field clinics where a few drops of blood from a finger prick could be rapidly tested in parallel for the presence of antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 with a test turnaround time of only 2–4 h. To evaluate our imaging device, we probed and imaged coronavirus microarrays with COVID-19-positive and negative sera and achieved a performance on par with a commercial microarray reader 100x more expensive than our imaging device. This work will enable large scale serosurveillance, which can play an important role in the months and years to come to implement efficient containment and mitigation measures, as well as help develop therapeutics and vaccines to treat and prevent the spread of COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Per Niklas Hedde
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA.,Laboratory for Fluorescence Dynamics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | | | - Aarti Jain
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Rie Nakajima
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Rafael Ramiro de Assis
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Trevor Pearce
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Algis Jasinskas
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | | | - Saahir Khan
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, University of California Irvine Health, Orange, CA, USA
| | - Philip L Felgner
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Enrico Gratton
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA.,Laboratory for Fluorescence Dynamics, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Weian Zhao
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA.,Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA.,Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA.,Edwards Life Sciences Center for Advanced Cardiovascular Technology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA.,Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
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4
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Abram TJ, Cherukury H, Ou CY, Vu T, Toledano M, Li Y, Grunwald JT, Toosky MN, Tifrea DF, Slepenkin A, Chong J, Kong L, Del Pozo DV, La KT, Labanieh L, Zimak J, Shen B, Huang SS, Gratton E, Peterson EM, Zhao W. Rapid bacterial detection and antibiotic susceptibility testing in whole blood using one-step, high throughput blood digital PCR. Lab Chip 2020; 20:477-489. [PMID: 31872202 PMCID: PMC7250044 DOI: 10.1039/c9lc01212e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Sepsis due to antimicrobial resistant pathogens is a major health problem worldwide. The inability to rapidly detect and thus treat bacteria with appropriate agents in the early stages of infections leads to excess morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs. Here we report a rapid diagnostic platform that integrates a novel one-step blood droplet digital PCR assay and a high throughput 3D particle counter system with potential to perform bacterial identification and antibiotic susceptibility profiling directly from whole blood specimens, without requiring culture and sample processing steps. Using CTX-M-9 family ESBLs as a model system, we demonstrated that our technology can simultaneously achieve unprecedented high sensitivity (10 CFU per ml) and rapid sample-to-answer assay time (one hour). In head-to-head studies, by contrast, real time PCR and BioRad ddPCR only exhibited a limit of detection of 1000 CFU per ml and 50-100 CFU per ml, respectively. In a blinded test inoculating clinical isolates into whole blood, we demonstrated 100% sensitivity and specificity in identifying pathogens carrying a particular resistance gene. We further demonstrated that our technology can be broadly applicable for targeted detection of a wide range of antibiotic resistant genes found in both Gram-positive (vanA, nuc, and mecA) and Gram-negative bacteria, including ESBLs (blaCTX-M-1 and blaCTX-M-2 families) and CREs (blaOXA-48 and blaKPC), as well as bacterial speciation (E. coli and Klebsiella spp.) and pan-bacterial detection, without requiring blood culture or sample processing. Our rapid diagnostic technology holds great potential in directing early, appropriate therapy and improved antibiotic stewardship in combating bloodstream infections and antibiotic resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J Abram
- Velox Biosystems, 5 Mason, Suite 160, Irvine, CA 92618, USA.
| | - Hemanth Cherukury
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, 845 Health Sciences Road, Suite 3027, Irvine, CA 92697, USA. and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Chen-Yin Ou
- Velox Biosystems, 5 Mason, Suite 160, Irvine, CA 92618, USA.
| | - Tam Vu
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, 845 Health Sciences Road, Suite 3027, Irvine, CA 92697, USA. and Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Michael Toledano
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, 845 Health Sciences Road, Suite 3027, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
| | - Yiyan Li
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, 845 Health Sciences Road, Suite 3027, Irvine, CA 92697, USA. and Department of Physics and Engineering, Fort Lewis College, Durango, CO 81301, USA
| | | | - Melody N Toosky
- Velox Biosystems, 5 Mason, Suite 160, Irvine, CA 92618, USA.
| | - Delia F Tifrea
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Anatoly Slepenkin
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Jonathan Chong
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, 845 Health Sciences Road, Suite 3027, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
| | - Lingshun Kong
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, 845 Health Sciences Road, Suite 3027, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
| | - Domenica Vanessa Del Pozo
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, 845 Health Sciences Road, Suite 3027, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
| | - Kieu Thai La
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, 845 Health Sciences Road, Suite 3027, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
| | - Louai Labanieh
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, 845 Health Sciences Road, Suite 3027, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
| | - Jan Zimak
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, 845 Health Sciences Road, Suite 3027, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
| | - Byron Shen
- Velox Biosystems, 5 Mason, Suite 160, Irvine, CA 92618, USA.
| | - Susan S Huang
- Division of Infectious Diseases, UCI School of Medicine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Enrico Gratton
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA and Laboratory for Fluorescence Dynamics, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Ellena M Peterson
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Weian Zhao
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, 845 Health Sciences Road, Suite 3027, Irvine, CA 92697, USA. and Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA and Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA and Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA and Edwards Life Sciences Center for Advanced Cardiovascular Technology, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA and Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
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5
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Toosky MN, Grunwald JT, Pala D, Shen B, Zhao W, D’Agostini C, Coghe F, Angioni G, Motolese G, Abram TJ, Nicolai E. A rapid, point-of-care antibiotic susceptibility test for urinary tract infections. J Med Microbiol 2020; 69:52-62. [PMID: 31846419 PMCID: PMC7440674 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.001119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2019] [Accepted: 11/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction. The alarming rise in urinary tract infection (UTI) antimicrobial resistance has resulted from a combination of high prevalence, low specificity and the lack of a rapid, point-of-care (POC) antibiotic susceptibility test (AST), which has led to the overuse/inappropriate use of antibiotics.Aim. This study aimed to evaluate the performance of a rapid POC phenotypic AST device in reporting susceptibility information within 2 h.Methodology. Instrument calibration was performed with model bacteria and fluorescent microbeads to determine the dynamic range and limit of detection for quantifying concentrations of bacteria and demonstrate the ability to rapidly differentiate susceptible and resistant model bacteria. We then evaluated 30 presumptive UTI-positive patient urine samples in a clinical pilot study using a panel of 5 common UTI antibiotics plus a growth control and compared our results to the hospital standard of care AST.Results. Our device was able to robustly detect and quantify bacteria concentrations from 50 to 105 colony-forming units (c.f.u.) ml-1. The high sensitivity of this measurement technique enabled the device to differentiate between susceptible and resistant model bacteria with 100 % specificity over a 2 h growth period. In the clinical pilot study, an overall categorical agreement (CA) of 90.7 % was observed (sensitivity=91.4 %, specificity=88.9 %, n=97) with performance for individual drugs ranging from 85 % CA (ceftazidime) to 100 % (nitrofurantoin).Conclusions. By reducing the typical timeframe for susceptibility testing from 2-3 days to 2 h, our POC phenotypic AST can provide critical information to clinicians prior to the administration of antibiotic therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Daniela Pala
- Apparecchiature Scientifiche Innovative, S.r.l., Milan, Italy
| | | | - Weian Zhao
- Sue and Bill Gross Stem Cell Research Center, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
- Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
- Edwards Life Sciences Center for Advanced Cardiovascular Technology, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Cartesio D’Agostini
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Ferdinando Coghe
- Laboratory Clinical Chemical Analysis and Microbiology, University Hospital of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Giancarlo Angioni
- Laboratory Clinical Chemical Analysis and Microbiology, AOBrotzu, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Guido Motolese
- Apparecchiature Scientifiche Innovative, S.r.l., Milan, Italy
| | | | - Eleonora Nicolai
- Apparecchiature Scientifiche Innovative, S.r.l., Milan, Italy
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
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6
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Chaudhuri S, Li L, Zimmerman M, Chen Y, Chen YX, Toosky MN, Gardner M, Pan M, Li YY, Kawaji Q, Zhu JH, Su HW, Martinot AJ, Rubin EJ, Dartois VA, Javid B. Kasugamycin potentiates rifampicin and limits emergence of resistance in Mycobacterium tuberculosis by specifically decreasing mycobacterial mistranslation. eLife 2018; 7:36782. [PMID: 30152756 PMCID: PMC6160228 DOI: 10.7554/elife.36782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2018] [Accepted: 08/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Most bacteria use an indirect pathway to generate aminoacylated glutamine and/or asparagine tRNAs. Clinical isolates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis with increased rates of error in gene translation (mistranslation) involving the indirect tRNA-aminoacylation pathway have increased tolerance to the first-line antibiotic rifampicin. Here, we identify that the aminoglycoside kasugamycin can specifically decrease mistranslation due to the indirect tRNA pathway. Kasugamycin but not the aminoglycoside streptomycin, can limit emergence of rifampicin resistance in vitro and increases mycobacterial susceptibility to rifampicin both in vitro and in a murine model of infection. Moreover, despite parenteral administration of kasugamycin being unable to achieve the in vitro minimum inhibitory concentration, kasugamycin alone was able to significantly restrict growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in mice. These data suggest that pharmacologically reducing mistranslation may be a novel mechanism for targeting bacterial adaptation. A bacterium called Mycobacterium tuberculosis is responsible for nearly 98% of cases of tuberculosis, which kills more people worldwide than any other infectious disease. This is due, in part, to the time it takes to cure individuals of the disease: patients have to take antibiotics continuously for at least six months to eradicate M. tuberculosis in the body. Bacteria, like all cells, make proteins using instructions contained within their genetic code. Cell components called ribosomes are responsible for translating these instructions and assembling the new proteins. Sometimes the ribosomes produce proteins that are slightly different to what the cell’s genetic code specified. These ‘incorrect proteins’ may not work properly so it is generally thought that cells try to prevent the mistakes from happening. However, scientists have recently found that the ribosomes in M. tuberculosis often assemble incorrect proteins. The more mistakes the ribosomes let happen, the more likely the bacteria are to survive when they are exposed to rifampicin, an antibiotic which is often used to treat tuberculosis infections. This suggests that it may be possible to make antibiotics more effective against M. tuberculosis by using them alongside a second drug that decreases the number of ribosome mistakes. Chaudhuri, Li et al. investigated the effect of a drug called kasugamycin on M. tuberculosis when the bacterium is cultured in the lab, and when it infects mice. The experiments found that Kasugamycin decreased the number of incorrect proteins assembled by the M. tuberculosis bacterium. When the drug was present, rifampicin also killed M. tuberculosis cells more efficiently. Furthermore, in the mice but not the cell cultures, kasugamycin alone was able to restrict the growth of the bacteria. This implies that M. tuberculosis cells may use ribosome mistakes as a strategy to survive in humans and other hosts. When it was given with rifampicin, kasugamycin caused several unwanted side effects in the mice, including weight loss; this may mean that the drug is currently not suitable to use in humans. Further studies may be able to find safer ways to decrease ribosome mistakes in M. tuberculosis, which could speed up the treatment of tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swarnava Chaudhuri
- Centre for Global Health and Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Tsinghua University School of Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Liping Li
- Public Health Research Institute, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Newark, United States
| | - Matthew Zimmerman
- Public Health Research Institute, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Newark, United States
| | - Yuemeng Chen
- Centre for Global Health and Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Tsinghua University School of Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Yu-Xiang Chen
- Centre for Global Health and Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Tsinghua University School of Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Melody N Toosky
- Centre for Global Health and Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Tsinghua University School of Medicine, Beijing, China.,Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, United States
| | - Michelle Gardner
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, United States
| | - Miaomiao Pan
- Centre for Global Health and Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Tsinghua University School of Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Yang-Yang Li
- Centre for Global Health and Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Tsinghua University School of Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Qingwen Kawaji
- Centre for Global Health and Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Tsinghua University School of Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Jun-Hao Zhu
- Centre for Global Health and Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Tsinghua University School of Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Hong-Wei Su
- Centre for Global Health and Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Tsinghua University School of Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Amanda J Martinot
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, United States
| | - Eric J Rubin
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, United States
| | - Veronique Anne Dartois
- Public Health Research Institute, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Newark, United States
| | - Babak Javid
- Centre for Global Health and Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Centre for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Tsinghua University School of Medicine, Beijing, China.,Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard TH Chan School of Public Health, Boston, United States
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