Refractory Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease: A Management Update

Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) is one of the most frequent gastrointestinal disorders. Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) are effective in healing lesions and improving symptoms in most cases, although up to 40% of GERD patients do not respond adequately to PPI therapy. Refractory GERD (rGERD) is one of the most challenging problems, given its impact on the quality of life and consumption of health care resources. The definition of rGERD is a controversial topic as it has not been unequivocally established. Indeed, some patients unresponsive to PPIs who experience symptoms potentially related to GERD may not have GERD; in this case the definition could be replaced with “reflux-like PPI-refractory symptoms.” Patients with persistent reflux-like symptoms should undergo a diagnostic workup aimed at finding objective evidence of GERD through endoscopic and pH-impedance investigations. The management strategies regarding rGERD, apart from a careful check of patient's compliance with PPIs, a possible change in the timing of their administration and the choice of a PPI with a different metabolic pathway, include other pharmacologic treatments. These include histamine-2 receptor antagonists (H2RAs), alginates, antacids and mucosal protective agents, potassium competitive acid blockers (PCABs), prokinetics, gamma aminobutyric acid-B (GABA-B) receptor agonists and metabotropic glutamate receptor-5 (mGluR5) antagonists, and pain modulators. If there is no benefit from medical therapy, but there is objective evidence of GERD, invasive antireflux options should be evaluated after having carefully explained the risks and benefits to the patient. The most widely performed invasive antireflux option remains laparoscopic antireflux surgery (LARS), even if other, less invasive, interventions have been suggested in the last few decades, including endoscopic transoral incisionless fundoplication (TIF), magnetic sphincter augmentation (LINX) or radiofrequency therapy (Stretta). Due to the different mechanisms underlying rGERD, the most effective strategy can vary, and it should be tailored to each patient. The aim of this paper is to review the different management options available to successfully deal with rGERD.

Comparison between hepatocellular carcinoma prognostic scores: A 10-year single-center experience and brief review of the current literature

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) represents the most common primitive liver malignancy. A relevant concern involves the lack of agreement on staging systems, prognostic scores, and treatment allocation algorithms. 

AIM

To compare the survival rates among already developed prognostic scores.

METHODS

We retrospectively evaluated 140 patients with HCC diagnosed between February 2006 and November 2017. Patients were categorized according to 15 prognostic scoring systems and estimated median survivals were compared with those available from the current medical literature.

RESULTS

The median overall survival of the cohort of patients was 35 (17; 67) mo, and it was statistically different in relation to treatment choice, ultrasound surveillance, and serum alpha-fetoprotein. The Italian Liver Cancer (ITA.LI.CA) tumor staging system performed best in predicting survival according to stage allocation among all 15 evaluated prognostic scores. Using the ITA.LI.CA prognostic system, 28.6%, 40.7%, 22.1%, and 8.6% of patients fell within stages 0-1, 2-3, 4-5 and > 5 respectively. The median survival was 57.9 mo for stages 0-1, 43 mo for stages 2-3, 21.7 mo for stages 4-5, and 10.4 mo for stage > 5. The 1-, 3-, and 5-year survival rates were respectively 95%, 65%, and 20%, for stages 0-1; 94.7%, 43.9% and 26.3% for stages 2-3; 71%, 25.8% and 16.1% for stages 4-5; and 50%, 16.7% and 8.3% for stage > 5. At the same time, although statistically significant in prognostic stratification, the most commonly used Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer system showed one of the most relevant differences in median survival, especially for stages A and C, when compared to the medical literature. In fact, 10.7%, 59.3%, 27.1%, 1.4%, and 0% of patients were stratified into stages 0, A, B, C, and D respectively. The median survival was > 81.1 mo for stage 0, 44.9 mo for stage A, 21.3 mo for stage B, and 3.1 mo for stage C. The 1-, 3-, and 5-year survival rates were respectively 86.7%, 60%, and 46.7% for stage 0; 91.6%, 50.6%, and 20.5% for stage A; 73.7%, 23.7% and 13.2% for stage B; and 2%, 0% and 0% for stage C.

CONCLUSION

Survival analysis shows excellent prognostic ability of the ITA.LI.CA scoring system compared to other staging systems.

The role of elastography in alcoholic liver disease: fibrosis staging and confounding factors, a review of the current literature

INTRODUCTION

Alcohol-related liver disease (ALD) was estimated to have a prevalence of 2% among the USA population. Since severe fibrosis in compensated patients is the main predictor of long-term survival, it is of utmost importance to early detect patients with severe fibrosis before decompensation occurs. Liver elastography has been used to stage liver fibrosis. However, there is a widespread lack in guidelines for the correct use of liver stiffness (LS) in ALD.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

A structured search was carried out on MEDLINE/PubMed database. From the original 225 research articles identified, only 12 studies met the inclusion criteria, with 10 studies being eventually included.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

According to reported data, patients with aspartate aminotransferase (AST)>100 IU/L and 50 IU/L showed significantly higher values of LS if compared to patients with the same fibrosis stage. Also, excessive alcohol consumption greatly influences elastography, leading to false fibrosis staging. When LS values >5-6 kPa are detected, several aspects should be taken into account. First of all, the patient should be asked about the current alcohol consumption (i.e. active vs. abstinence, determination of abstinence period, and quantification of alcohol intake), and if the patient is an active drinker, liver elastography can be repeated after a complete abstinence period of at least two weeks. and if the patient is an active drinker, liver elastography can be repeated after a complete abstinence period of at least two weeks. Secondly, clinicians should check liver transaminases level, and if AST are above 100 IU/L, they should be aware of a possible overestimation of fibrosis. However, whether transaminases-adapted cut-off values should be used for ad-hoc decisions in patients with no time or option to withdraw from alcohol consumption is still a matter of debate.

CONCLUSIONS

We hope that our review article may serve as a reference point in the prospect of futures guidelines.

The role of elastography in alcoholic liver disease: fibrosis staging and confounding factors, a review of the current literature

INTRODUCTION

Alcohol-related liver disease (ALD) was estimated to have a prevalence of 2% among the USA population. Since severe fibrosis in compensated patients is the main predictor of long-term survival, it is of utmost importance to early detect patients with severe fibrosis before decompensation occurs. Liver elastography has been used to stage liver fibrosis. However, there is a widespread lack in guidelines for the correct use of liver stiffness (LS) in ALD.

EVIDENCE ACQUISITION

A structured search was carried out on MEDLINE/PubMed database. From the original 225 research articles identified, only 12 studies met the inclusion criteria, with 10 studies being eventually included.

EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS

According to reported data, patients with aspartate aminotransferase (AST)>100 IU/L and 50 IU/L showed significantly higher values of LS if compared to patients with the same fibrosis stage. Also, excessive alcohol consumption greatly influences elastography, leading to false fibrosis staging. When LS values >5-6 kPa are detected, several aspects should be taken into account. First of all, the patient should be asked about the current alcohol consumption (i.e. active vs. abstinence, determination of abstinence period, and quantification of alcohol intake), and if the patient is an active drinker, liver elastography can be repeated after a complete abstinence period of at least two weeks. and if the patient is an active drinker, liver elastography can be repeated after a complete abstinence period of at least two weeks. Secondly, clinicians should check liver transaminases level, and if AST are above 100 IU/L, they should be aware of a possible overestimation of fibrosis. However, whether transaminases-adapted cut-off values should be used for ad-hoc decisions in patients with no time or option to withdraw from alcohol consumption is still a matter of debate.

CONCLUSIONS

We hope that our review article may serve as a reference point in the prospect of futures guidelines.

A Novel Kindred with Familial Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors Caused by a Rare KIT Germline Mutation (N655K): Clinico-Pathological Presentation and TKI Sensitivity

Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GISTs), the most common mesenchymal tumors of the gastrointestinal tract, are characterized by activating mutations in KIT or PDGFRA genes. The vast majority of GISTs are sporadic, but rare hereditary forms have been reported, often featuring multifocality and younger age of onset. We here report the identification of a novel kindred affected by familial GIST caused by a KIT germline mutation in exon 13 (N655K). No family affected by hereditary GIST due to this KIT variant has been reported in literature so far. We were able to track the mutation in three members of the family (proband, mother, and second-degree cousin), all affected by multiple GISTs. Due to its rarity, the N655K variant is poorly characterized. We conducted in vitro drug sensitivity assays that indicated that most tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) currently included in the therapeutic armamentarium for GISTs have a limited inhibitory activity toward this mutation. However, when compared to a classical imatinib-resistant KIT mutation (T670I), N655K was slightly more sensitive to imatinib, and encouraging responses were observed with last-generation TKIs.

Activities related to inflammatory bowel disease management during and after the coronavirus disease 2019 lockdown in Italy: How to maintain standards of care

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Restructuring activities have been necessary during the lockdown phase of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. Few data are available on the post-lockdown phase in terms of health-care procedures in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) care, and no data are available specifically from IBD units. We aimed to investigate how IBD management was restructured during the lockdown phase, the impact of the restructuring on standards of care and how Italian IBD units have managed post-lockdown activities.

METHODS

A web-based online survey was conducted in two phases (April and June 2020) among the Italian Group for IBD affiliated units within the entire country. We investigated preventive measures, the possibility of continuing scheduled visits/procedures/therapies because of COVID-19 and how units resumed activities in the post-lockdown phase.

RESULTS

Forty-two referral centres participated from all over Italy. During the COVID-19 lockdown, 36% of first visits and 7% of follow-up visits were regularly done, while >70% of follow-up scheduled visits and 5% of first visits were done virtually. About 25% of scheduled endoscopies and bowel ultrasound scans were done. More than 80% of biological therapies were done as scheduled. Compared to the pre-lockdown situation, 95% of centres modified management of outpatient activity, 93% of endoscopies, 59% of gastrointestinal ultrasounds and 33% of biological therapies. Resumption of activities after the lockdown phase may take three to six months to normalize. Virtual clinics, implementation of IBD pathways and facilities seem to be the main factors to improve care in the future.

CONCLUSION

Italian IBD unit restructuring allowed quality standards of care during the COVID-19 pandemic to be maintained. A return to normal appears to be feasible and achievable relatively quickly. Some approaches, such as virtual clinics and identified IBD pathways, represent a valid starting point to improve IBD care in the post-COVID-19 era.

Evaluation of spleen stiffness in healthy volunteers using point shear wave elastography

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES

This study aims to measure the values of spleen stiffness (SS) in healthy subjects, the inter-operator agreement in SS measurement, and to detect statistically significant correlations between SS and age, sex, weight, BMI, portal vein dynamics and splenic dimensions.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study included 100 healthy volunteers who had no substantial alcohol intake (<30g/daily for man, <20g/daily women), were negative on hepatitis B, hepatitis C, HIV blood serology, and had any history of lymphoproliferative disorders. Abdominal ultrasound, liver and spleen elastography were performed on each patient to search for focal splenic lesions, bile tract or portal vein dilatation, moderate/severe liver steatosis, and to measure liver and spleen stiffness.

RESULTS

The mean value was 18.14 (±3.08) kPa. In the group of men (n=49), the mean was 17.73 (±2.91) kPa, whereas in the group of women (n=51) it was 16.72 (±3.32) kPa. Statistical analyses showed no correlation between spleen stiffness and sex, age, weight, and BMI. Regarding their splenoportal axis, statistically significant differences in SS were found in the means of the two subgroups of subjects stratified by their portal flow velocity (p=0.003) and spleen area (p<0.001). Spearman's rank showed a weak association between SS and portal flow velocty (r=0.271) and splenic area (r=-0.237). ICC showed excellent (0.96) inter-operator agreement and Bland-Altman plot demonstrated no systematic over/under-estimation of spleen stiffness values.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results may serve as a reference point in the evaluation of SS especially in patients affected by advanced liver disease.

A story of liver and gut microbes: how does the intestinal flora affect liver disease? A review of the literature

Each individual is endowed with a unique gut microbiota (GM) footprint that mediates numerous host-related physiological functions, such as nutrient metabolism, maintenance of the structural integrity of the gut mucosal barrier, immunomodulation, and protection against microbial pathogens. Because of increased scientific interest in the GM, its central role in the pathophysiology of many intestinal and extraintestinal conditions has been recognized. Given the close relationship between the gastrointestinal tract and the liver, many pathological processes have been investigated in the light of a microbial-centered hypothesis of hepatic damage. In this review we introduce to neophytes the vast world of gut microbes, including prevalent bacterial distribution in healthy individuals, how the microbiota is commonly analyzed, and the current knowledge of the role of GM in liver disease pathophysiology. Also, we highlight the potentials and downsides of GM-based therapy.

Alanine aminotransferase and spleno-portal dynamics affect spleen stiffness measured by point shear-wave elastography in patients with chronic hepatitis C in the absence of significant liver fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Spleen stiffness (SS) has gained a lot of interest in the context of liver cirrhosis and portal hypertension stratification. However, there is a paucity of data on confounding factors that may alter SS values.

METHODS

Between January 2018 and October 2019, we enrolled 120 healthy subjects and 117 patients with hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection who did not have significant liver fibrosis (i.e., F0-1). Abdominal ultrasound evaluation was performed on each individual to measure portal vein diameter, portal flow velocity, spleen bipolar diameter, and splenic area. We also performed liver and spleen elastography.

RESULTS

HCV patients had higher SS (p < 0.001), portal vein diameter (p = 0.031), portal flow velocity (p = 0.035), spleen bipolar diameter (p = 0.042) and area (p = 0.025), and ALT levels (p < 0.001). Linear regression models showed that SS increased by 3.220 kPa for each mm of portal vein diameter, by 0.7 kPa for each cm/s of portal flow velocity, by 2.239 kPa for each cm of spleen bipolar diameter, and by 0.233 kPa for each cm² of spleen area. Patients with HCV infection were stratified according to median ALT levels (i.e. 32 IU/L). SS and spleno-portal axis parameters were significantly higher in patients with an ALT level > 32 IU/L. Besides, the relationship between SS and ALT was described by cubic polynomial regression according to the following equation: 11.735 + 0.404 (ALT)¹ - 0.002 (ALT)² + 4.26 × 10^-6 (ALT)³.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results bring new light to the role of inflammation as a confounding factor for SS measurement. Therefore, particular attention should be paid to serum transaminase for a correct evaluation of spleen elastography.