1
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Banerjee P, Mehta AR, Nirujogi RS, Cooper J, James OG, Nanda J, Longden J, Burr K, McDade K, Salzinger A, Paza E, Newton J, Story D, Pal S, Smith C, Alessi DR, Selvaraj BT, Priller J, Chandran S. Cell-autonomous immune dysfunction driven by disrupted autophagy in C9orf72-ALS iPSC-derived microglia contributes to neurodegeneration. Sci Adv 2023; 9:eabq0651. [PMID: 37083530 PMCID: PMC10121169 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abq0651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Although microglial activation is widely found in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD), the underlying mechanism(s) are poorly understood. Here, using human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived microglia-like cells (hiPSC-MG) harboring the most common ALS/FTD mutation (C9orf72, mC9-MG), gene-corrected isogenic controls (isoC9-MG), and C9orf72 knockout hiPSC-MG (C9KO-MG), we show that reduced C9ORF72 protein is associated with impaired phagocytosis and an exaggerated immune response upon stimulation with lipopolysaccharide. Analysis of the C9ORF72 interactome revealed that C9ORF72 interacts with regulators of autophagy and functional studies showed impaired initiation of autophagy in mC9-MG and C9KO-MG. Coculture studies with motor neurons (MNs) demonstrated that the autophagy deficit in mC9-MG drives increased vulnerability of mC9-MNs to excitotoxic stimulus. Pharmacological activation of autophagy ameliorated both cell-autonomous functional deficits in hiPSC-MG and MN death in MG-MN coculture. Together, these findings reveal an important role for C9ORF72 in regulating immune homeostasis and identify dysregulation in myeloid cells as a contributor to neurodegeneration in ALS/FTD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Poulomi Banerjee
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh bioQuarter, Chancellor’s Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Arpan R. Mehta
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh bioQuarter, Chancellor’s Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Anne Rowling Regenerative Neurology Clinic, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Raja S. Nirujogi
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, UK
| | - James Cooper
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh bioQuarter, Chancellor’s Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Owen G. James
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh bioQuarter, Chancellor’s Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Jyoti Nanda
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh bioQuarter, Chancellor’s Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - James Longden
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh bioQuarter, Chancellor’s Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Karen Burr
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh bioQuarter, Chancellor’s Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Karina McDade
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh bioQuarter, Chancellor’s Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Edinburgh Brain Bank, Academic Department of Neuropathology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Edinburgh Pathology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Andrea Salzinger
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh bioQuarter, Chancellor’s Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Evdokia Paza
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh bioQuarter, Chancellor’s Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Judith Newton
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Anne Rowling Regenerative Neurology Clinic, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - David Story
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh bioQuarter, Chancellor’s Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Suvankar Pal
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Anne Rowling Regenerative Neurology Clinic, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Colin Smith
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Edinburgh Brain Bank, Academic Department of Neuropathology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
- Edinburgh Pathology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Dario R. Alessi
- Medical Research Council (MRC) Protein Phosphorylation and Ubiquitylation Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, UK
| | - Bhuvaneish T. Selvaraj
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh bioQuarter, Chancellor’s Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Anne Rowling Regenerative Neurology Clinic, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Josef Priller
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh bioQuarter, Chancellor’s Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy; School of Medicine, Technical University of Munich, Ismaninger Str. 22, 81675 Munich, Germany
- Neuropsychiatry, Charité–Universitätsmedizin Berlin and DZNE, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Siddharthan Chandran
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh bioQuarter, Chancellor’s Building, 49 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
- Anne Rowling Regenerative Neurology Clinic, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
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2
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Barton SK, Magnani D, James OG, Livesey MR, Selvaraj BT, James OT, Perkins EM, Gregory JM, Cleary E, Ausems CRM, Carter RNC, Vasistha NA, Zhao C, Burr K, Story D, Cardinali A, Morton NM, Hardingham GE, Wyllie DJA, Chandran S. Transactive response DNA-binding protein-43 proteinopathy in oligodendrocytes revealed using an induced pluripotent stem cell model. Brain Commun 2022; 3:fcab255. [PMID: 35350711 PMCID: PMC8936427 DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcab255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Oligodendrocytes are implicated in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis pathogenesis and display transactive response DNA-binding protein-43 (TDP-43) pathological inclusions. To investigate the cell autonomous consequences of TDP-43 mutations on human oligodendrocytes, we generated oligodendrocytes from patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cell lines harbouring mutations in the TARDBP gene, namely G298S and M337V. Through a combination of immunocytochemistry, electrophysiological assessment via whole-cell patch clamping, and three-dimensional cultures, no differences in oligodendrocyte differentiation, maturation or myelination were identified. Furthermore, expression analysis for monocarboxylate transporter 1 (a lactate transporter) coupled with a glycolytic stress test showed no deficit in lactate export. However, using confocal microscopy, we report TDP-43 mutation-dependent pathological mis-accumulation of TDP-43. Furthermore, using in vitro patch-clamp recordings, we identified functional Ca2+-permeable α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptor dysregulation in oligodendrocytes. Together, these findings establish a platform for further interrogation of the role of oligodendrocytes and cellular autonomy in TDP-43 proteinopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha K Barton
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK.,Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, Melbourne 3052, Australia
| | - Dario Magnani
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Owen G James
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Matthew R Livesey
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK.,Department of Neuroscience, SITraN, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2HQ, UK
| | - Bhuvaneish T Selvaraj
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Owain T James
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK
| | - Emma M Perkins
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK
| | - Jenna M Gregory
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Elaine Cleary
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - C Rosanne M Ausems
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Roderick N Carter Carter
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Navneet A Vasistha
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Chen Zhao
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Karen Burr
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - David Story
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Alessandra Cardinali
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Nicholas M Morton
- Centre for Cardiovascular Science, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Giles E Hardingham
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK
| | - David J A Wyllie
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH8 9XD, UK.,Centre for Brain Development and Repair, Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Bangalore 560065, India
| | - Siddharthan Chandran
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK.,UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, UK.,Centre for Brain Development and Repair, Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Bangalore 560065, India
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3
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James OG, Selvaraj BT, Magnani D, Burr K, Connick P, Barton SK, Vasistha NA, Hampton DW, Story D, Smigiel R, Ploski R, Brophy PJ, ffrench-Constant C, Lyons DA, Chandran S. iPSC-derived myelinoids to study myelin biology of humans. Dev Cell 2022; 57:146. [PMID: 35016003 PMCID: PMC8751633 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2021.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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4
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Barton SK, Gregory JM, Selvaraj BT, McDade K, Henstridge CM, Spires-Jones TL, James OG, Mehta AR, Story D, Burr K, Magnani D, Isaacs AM, Smith C, Chandran S. Dysregulation in Subcellular Localization of Myelin Basic Protein mRNA Does Not Result in Altered Myelination in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. Front Neurosci 2021; 15:705306. [PMID: 34539336 PMCID: PMC8440970 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2021.705306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathological hallmarks of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), including protein misfolding, are well established in oligodendrocytes. More recently, an RNA trafficking deficit of key myelin proteins has been suggested in oligodendrocytes in ALS but the extent to which this affects myelination and the relative contribution of this to disease pathogenesis is unclear. ALS autopsy research findings showing demyelination contrasts with the routine clinical-pathological workup of ALS cases where it is rare to see white matter abnormalities other than simple Wallerian degeneration secondary to widespread neuronal loss. To begin to address this apparent variance, we undertook a comprehensive evaluation of myelination at an RNA, protein and structural level using human pathological material from sporadic ALS patients, genetic ALS patients (harboring C9orf72 mutation) and age- and sex-matched non-neurological controls. We performed (i) quantitative spatial profiling of the mRNA transcript encoding myelin basic protein (MBP), (ii) quantification of MBP protein and (iii) the first quantitative structural assessment of myelination in ALS post-mortem specimens by electron microscopy. We show no differences in MBP protein levels or ultrastructural myelination, despite a significant dysregulation in the subcellular trafficking of MBP mRNA in ALS patients compared to controls. We therefore confirm that whilst there are cell autonomous mRNA trafficking deficits affecting oligodendrocytes in ALS, this has no effect on myelin structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha K. Barton
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- UK Dementia Research Institute at The University of Edinburgh, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Jenna M. Gregory
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- UK Dementia Research Institute at The University of Edinburgh, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Bhuvaneish T. Selvaraj
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- UK Dementia Research Institute at The University of Edinburgh, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Karina McDade
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher M. Henstridge
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- UK Dementia Research Institute at The University of Edinburgh, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Tara L. Spires-Jones
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- UK Dementia Research Institute at The University of Edinburgh, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Owen G. James
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- UK Dementia Research Institute at The University of Edinburgh, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Arpan R. Mehta
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- UK Dementia Research Institute at The University of Edinburgh, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - David Story
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- UK Dementia Research Institute at The University of Edinburgh, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Karen Burr
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- UK Dementia Research Institute at The University of Edinburgh, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Dario Magnani
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- UK Dementia Research Institute at The University of Edinburgh, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Adrian M. Isaacs
- UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, Faculty of Brain Sciences, University College London, London, United Kingdom
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Colin Smith
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Siddharthan Chandran
- Euan MacDonald Centre for MND Research, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- UK Dementia Research Institute at The University of Edinburgh, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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5
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James OG, Mehta AR, Behari M, Chandran S. Centenary of the oligodendrocyte. Lancet Neurol 2021; 20:422. [PMID: 34022167 PMCID: PMC7610932 DOI: 10.1016/s1474-4422(21)00136-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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6
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James OG, Selvaraj BT, Magnani D, Burr K, Connick P, Barton SK, Vasistha NA, Hampton DW, Story D, Smigiel R, Ploski R, Brophy PJ, Ffrench-Constant C, Lyons DA, Chandran S. iPSC-derived myelinoids to study myelin biology of humans. Dev Cell 2021; 56:1346-1358.e6. [PMID: 33945785 PMCID: PMC8098746 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2021.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Myelination is essential for central nervous system (CNS) formation, health, and function. Emerging evidence of oligodendrocyte heterogeneity in health and disease and divergent CNS gene expression profiles between mice and humans supports the development of experimentally tractable human myelination systems. Here, we developed human iPSC-derived myelinating organoids ("myelinoids") and quantitative tools to study myelination from oligodendrogenesis through to compact myelin formation and myelinated axon organization. Using patient-derived cells, we modeled a monogenetic disease of myelinated axons (Nfasc155 deficiency), recapitulating impaired paranodal axo-glial junction formation. We also validated the use of myelinoids for pharmacological assessment of myelination-both at the level of individual oligodendrocytes and globally across whole myelinoids-and demonstrated reduced myelination in response to suppressed synaptic vesicle release. Our study provides a platform to investigate human myelin development, disease, and adaptive myelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Owen G James
- UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Anne Rowling Regenerative Neurology Clinic, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Bhuvaneish T Selvaraj
- UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Dario Magnani
- UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Karen Burr
- UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Peter Connick
- UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Anne Rowling Regenerative Neurology Clinic, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Samantha K Barton
- UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Navneet A Vasistha
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Biotech Research and Innovation Centre, Copenhagen N 2200, Denmark
| | - David W Hampton
- UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - David Story
- UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Robert Smigiel
- Department of Pediatrics and Rare Disorders, Wroclaw Medical University, Wrocław 51-618, Poland
| | - Rafal Ploski
- Department of Medical Genetics, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw 02-106, Poland
| | - Peter J Brophy
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | | | - David A Lyons
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Siddharthan Chandran
- UK Dementia Research Institute at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Anne Rowling Regenerative Neurology Clinic, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; Centre for Brain Development and Repair, inStem, Bangalore 560065, India.
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7
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Banerjee P, Paza E, Perkins EM, James OG, Kenkhuis B, Lloyd AF, Burr K, Story D, Yusuf D, He X, Backofen R, Dando O, Chandran S, Priller J. Generation of pure monocultures of human microglia-like cells from induced pluripotent stem cells. Stem Cell Res 2020; 49:102046. [PMID: 33096385 DOI: 10.1016/j.scr.2020.102046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2020] [Revised: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Microglia are resident tissue macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS) that arise from erythromyeloid progenitors during embryonic development. They play essential roles in CNS development, homeostasis and response to disease. Since microglia are difficult to procure from the human brain, several protocols have been developed to generate microglia-like cells from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs). However, some concerns remain over the purity and quality of in vitro generated microglia. Here, we describe a new protocol that does not require co-culture with neural cells and yields cultures of 100% P2Y12+ 95% TMEM119+ ramified human microglia-like cells (hiPSC-MG). In the presence of neural precursor cell-conditioned media, hiPSC-MG expressed high levels of human microglia signature genes, including SALL1, CSF1R, P2RY12, TMEM119, TREM2, HEXB and SIGLEC11, as revealed by whole-transcriptome analysis. Stimulation of hiPSC-MG with lipopolysaccharide resulted in downregulation of P2Y12 expression, induction of IL1B mRNA expression and increase in cell capacitance. HiPSC-MG were phagocytically active and maintained their cell identity after transplantation into murine brain slices and human brain spheroids. Together, our new protocol for the generation of microglia-like cells from human iPSCs will facilitate the study of human microglial function in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Poulomi Banerjee
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK; UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Evdokia Paza
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK; UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Emma M Perkins
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK; UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Owen G James
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK; UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Boyd Kenkhuis
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK; UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK; Department of Human Genetics, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Amy F Lloyd
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK; UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Karen Burr
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK; UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - David Story
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK; UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Dilmurat Yusuf
- Bioinformatics Group, Department of Computer Science, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Xin He
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK; Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Rolf Backofen
- Bioinformatics Group, Department of Computer Science, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; Signalling Research Centres BIOSS and CIBSS, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Owen Dando
- UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK; Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Siddharthan Chandran
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK; UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Josef Priller
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK; UK Dementia Research Institute at University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK; Department of Neuropsychiatry and Laboratory of Molecular Psychiatry, Charité, Universitätsmedizin Berlin, BIH and DZNE, Berlin, Germany.
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Harkin LF, Lindsay SJ, Xu Y, Alzu'bi A, Ferrera A, Gullon EA, James OG, Clowry GJ. Corrigendum: Neurexins 1-3 Each Have a Distinct Pattern of Expression in the Early Developing Human Cerebral Cortex. Cereb Cortex 2019; 29:1705. [PMID: 30753338 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhz012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Lauren F Harkin
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.,Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Parkway Drive, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Susan J Lindsay
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Parkway Drive, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Yaobo Xu
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Parkway Drive, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Ayman Alzu'bi
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.,Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Parkway Drive, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Alexandra Ferrera
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.,Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Parkway Drive, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Emily A Gullon
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.,Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Parkway Drive, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Owen G James
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.,Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Parkway Drive, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Gavin J Clowry
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
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9
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D'Souza MN, Gowda NKC, Tiwari V, Babu RO, Anand P, Dastidar SG, Singh R, James OG, Selvaraj B, Pal R, Ramesh A, Chattarji S, Chandran S, Gulyani A, Palakodeti D, Muddashetty RS. FMRP Interacts with C/D Box snoRNA in the Nucleus and Regulates Ribosomal RNA Methylation. iScience 2019; 12:368. [PMID: 30763793 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2019.01.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
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10
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D'Souza MN, Gowda NKC, Tiwari V, Babu RO, Anand P, Dastidar SG, Singh R, James OG, Selvaraj B, Pal R, Ramesh A, Chattarji S, Chandran S, Gulyani A, Palakodeti D, Muddashetty RS. FMRP Interacts with C/D Box snoRNA in the Nucleus and Regulates Ribosomal RNA Methylation. iScience 2018; 9:399-411. [PMID: 30469012 PMCID: PMC6249352 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2018.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Revised: 09/28/2018] [Accepted: 11/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
FMRP is an RNA-binding protein that is known to localize in the cytoplasm and in the nucleus. Here, we have identified an interaction of FMRP with a specific set of C/D box snoRNAs in the nucleus. C/D box snoRNAs guide 2’O methylations of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) on defined sites, and this modification regulates rRNA folding and assembly of ribosomes. 2’O methylation of rRNA is partial on several sites in human embryonic stem cells, which results in ribosomes with differential methylation patterns. FMRP-snoRNA interaction affects rRNA methylation on several of these sites, and in the absence of FMRP, differential methylation pattern of rRNA is significantly altered. We found that FMRP recognizes ribosomes carrying specific methylation patterns on rRNA and the recognition of methylation pattern by FMRP may potentially determine the translation status of its target mRNAs. Thus, FMRP integrates its function in the nucleus and in the cytoplasm. FMRP binds to C/D Box snoRNAs in the nucleus Differential 2’O-methylation on rRNA contributes to ribosome heterogeneity in a cell 2’O-Methylation pattern on ribosomal RNA is altered in the absence of FMRP FMRP recognizes 2’O-methylation on rRNA, which may determine interaction with ribosomes
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Ninochka D'Souza
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Bengaluru 560065, India; The University of Trans-Disciplinary Health Sciences & Technology (TDU), Bengaluru, Karnataka 560064, India
| | | | - Vishal Tiwari
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Bengaluru 560065, India; National Centre for Biological Sciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560065, India
| | | | - Praveen Anand
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Bengaluru 560065, India
| | - Sudhriti Ghosh Dastidar
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Bengaluru 560065, India; Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Madhav Nagar, Manipal, Karnataka 576104, India
| | - Randhir Singh
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Bengaluru 560065, India
| | - Owen G James
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; UK Dementia Research Institute at Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Bhuvaneish Selvaraj
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; UK Dementia Research Institute at Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Rakhi Pal
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Bengaluru 560065, India
| | - Arati Ramesh
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560065, India
| | - Sumantra Chattarji
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Bengaluru 560065, India; National Centre for Biological Sciences, Bengaluru, Karnataka 560065, India; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Siddharthan Chandran
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Bengaluru 560065, India; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK; UK Dementia Research Institute at Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4SB, UK
| | - Akash Gulyani
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Bengaluru 560065, India
| | - Dasaradhi Palakodeti
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Bengaluru 560065, India
| | - Ravi S Muddashetty
- Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Bengaluru 560065, India.
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11
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Harkin LF, Lindsay SJ, Xu Y, Alzu'bi A, Ferrara A, Gullon EA, James OG, Clowry GJ. Neurexins 1-3 Each Have a Distinct Pattern of Expression in the Early Developing Human Cerebral Cortex. Cereb Cortex 2017; 27:216-232. [PMID: 28013231 PMCID: PMC5654756 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhw394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2016] [Revised: 11/16/2016] [Accepted: 12/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurexins (NRXNs) are presynaptic terminal proteins and candidate neurodevelopmental disorder susceptibility genes; mutations presumably upset synaptic stabilization and function. However, analysis of human cortical tissue samples by RNAseq and quantitative real-time PCR at 8-12 postconceptional weeks, prior to extensive synapse formation, showed expression of all three NRXNs as well as several potential binding partners. However, the levels of expression were not identical; NRXN1 increased with age and NRXN2 levels were consistently higher than for NRXN3. Immunohistochemistry for each NRXN also revealed different expression patterns at this stage of development. NRXN1 and NRXN3 immunoreactivity was generally strongest in the cortical plate and increased in the ventricular zone with age, but was weak in the synaptogenic presubplate (pSP) and marginal zone. On the other hand, NRXN2 colocalized with synaptophysin in neurites of the pSP, but especially with GAP43 and CASK in growing axons of the intermediate zone. Alternative splicing modifies the role of NRXNs and we found evidence by RNAseq for exon skipping at splice site 4 and concomitant expression of KHDBRS proteins which control this splicing. NRXN2 may play a part in early cortical synaptogenesis, but NRXNs could have diverse roles in development including axon guidance, and intercellular communication between proliferating cells and/or migrating neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren F Harkin
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Parkway Drive, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 3BZ, UK
- Present address: School of Healthcare Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, M1 5GD, UK
| | - Susan J Lindsay
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Parkway Drive, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - Yaobo Xu
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Parkway Drive, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 3BZ, UK
- Present address: Wellcome Trust, Sanger Institute, Cambridge, CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Ayman Alzu'bi
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Parkway Drive, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - Alexandra Ferrara
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Parkway Drive, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - Emily A Gullon
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Parkway Drive, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 3BZ, UK
| | - Owen G James
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
- Institute of Genetic Medicine, Newcastle University, International Centre for Life, Parkway Drive, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 3BZ, UK
- Present address: MRC Centre for Regenerative Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4UU, UK
| | - Gavin J Clowry
- Institute of Neuroscience, Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, UK
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