Ecological countermeasures to prevent pathogen spillover and subsequent pandemics

Substantial global attention is focused on how to reduce the risk of future pandemics. Reducing this risk requires investment in prevention, preparedness, and response. Although preparedness and response have received significant focus, prevention, especially the prevention of zoonotic spillover, remains largely absent from global conversations. This oversight is due in part to the lack of a clear definition of prevention and lack of guidance on how to achieve it. To address this gap, we elucidate the mechanisms linking environmental change and zoonotic spillover using spillover of viruses from bats as a case study. We identify ecological interventions that can disrupt these spillover mechanisms and propose policy frameworks for their implementation. Recognizing that pandemics originate in ecological systems, we advocate for integrating ecological approaches alongside biomedical approaches in a comprehensive and balanced pandemic prevention strategy.

Land use change in rapidly developing economies-a case study on land use intensification and land fallowing in Kochi, Kerala, India

The land use/land cover change is a local driver of environmental change having cascading impacts and implications at the global level, and therefore requires appreciable consideration when perceived from sustainability perspectives. Kerala, the southernmost state of India, has undergone a dramatic transition from a traditional agrarian economy to a modern thriving economy involving the irrational exploitation of natural resources, precisely, land and its components. The present study addresses how land is being changed along an urbanization gradient in the most agglomerative city in the state, Kochi, during the last one and half decades. High-resolution remote sensing data available from the Google Earth Pro pertaining to the four time periods, i.e., 2005, 2010, 2015, and 2020, representing urban, suburban, and rural areas, were analysed to estimate the changes in land use land cover. A semi-structured interview was conducted at the household level to identify the major drivers of land use change. The results indicated the presence of two major and divergent trends; the first one is the intensification of land use activities at the rate of 1.37% per annum, primarily driven by urbanization and infrastructure developments, and the second one is the fallowing and abandonment of land (at the rate of 0.21% per annum) driven by the increased cost of cultivation. The rates of change are more prominent in the rural areas while the urban grids are nearing saturation occupying nearly two-thirds of the area with urban features at the expense of greenery. Though the progression with respect to urbanization and infrastructure developments is expected, the fallowing and abandonment of land is unanticipated, raising serious questions in the developmental pathways to achieve Sustainable Development Goals in the State of Kerala.

A Global-Scale Ecological Niche Modeling of the Emerging Pathogen Serratia marcescens to Aid in its Spatial Ecology

Serratia marcescens is a big emerging concern for human health and coral biodiversity. Spatial ecology and the influencing factors on pathogen ecology, however, remain unknown. The study forms the first global risk assessment of S. marcescens. MaxEnt niche modeling was applied using two biotic and sixteen abiotic variables. The world was classified into five risk-level categories based on the pathogen ecology, and the world population exposed to S. marcescens infection was then quantified. The prepared model showed an area under the curve value of 0.918 ± 0.028, implying excellent prediction ability. The highly and moderately suitable areas occupied around 0.52% and 17.9% of the total global land area. The order of probability of having S. marcescens-related infections was Asia > North America > South America > Europe > Africa > Australia. Human population density and temperature were the most influential factors in the distribution. The moderate to high transmission risk zones contained 0.20% (1.61 billion people) of the human population. In brief, these results give novel insights into its spatial ecology and provide the risk maps that can be utilized to plan targeted strategic control measures against future invasions of this emerging pathogen.

Goat as the ideal climate-resilient animal model in tropical environment: revisiting advantages over other livestock species

In the agriculture sector, livestock are considered extremely resilient to climate change and are tipped to play a significant role in ensuring food security to meet the increased demands of growing human population by 2050. Compared to other domestic species, goats are considered the ideal animal model for climate change due to its high thermal and drought resilience, ability to survive on limited pastures, and high disease resistance. This review is therefore a revisit to the advantages of rearing goats over other livestock species under current and future trends of changes in climate, particularly to cope with recurrent multiple stressors such as heat load, and lack of water and feed. In summary, goats, also called as poor man's cow, are preferred by the small-scale landless farmers due to their low input and assured higher output system, as they require low initial investment, with minimum specialized facilities and labors. Furthermore, they perceive goats as better resilient animal to cope with multiple stressors such as heat load, and water and feed scarcity, and possess better skills to cope with bush, when compared with sheep and cattle. The unique capacity for employing behavioral plasticity and morphological features of goats gives them clear advantage over sheep and cattle, when coping with seasonal biotopes, and experiences of water and feed shortage. When facing with low-quality feed, they also are superior to cattle and sheep to digest dry matter and to recycle nitrogen. Additionally, goats have superior ability to desiccate feces and concentrate urine, when compared with sheep and cattle. These advantages make goat the go-to species for efficiently countering the adversities associated with climate change and to optimize appropriate economic return through sustained production. Therefore, goats are tipped to be the future animals with extreme potential to counter the projected alarming climate change impacts and expected to play a significant role in ensuring food security to meet the demands of the growing human population by the end of this century.

Prioritizing surveillance of Nipah virus in India

The 2018 outbreak of Nipah virus in Kerala, India, highlights the need for global surveillance of henipaviruses in bats, which are the reservoir hosts for this and other viruses. Nipah virus, an emerging paramyxovirus in the genus Henipavirus, causes severe disease and stuttering chains of transmission in humans and is considered a potential pandemic threat. In May 2018, an outbreak of Nipah virus began in Kerala, > 1800 km from the sites of previous outbreaks in eastern India in 2001 and 2007. Twenty-three people were infected and 21 people died (16 deaths and 18 cases were laboratory confirmed). Initial surveillance focused on insectivorous bats (Megaderma spasma), whereas follow-up surveys within Kerala found evidence of Nipah virus in fruit bats (Pteropus medius). P. medius is the confirmed host in Bangladesh and is now a confirmed host in India. However, other bat species may also serve as reservoir hosts of henipaviruses. To inform surveillance of Nipah virus in bats, we reviewed and analyzed the published records of Nipah virus surveillance globally. We applied a trait-based machine learning approach to a subset of species that occur in Asia, Australia, and Oceana. In addition to seven species in Kerala that were previously identified as Nipah virus seropositive, we identified at least four bat species that, on the basis of trait similarity with known Nipah virus-seropositive species, have a relatively high likelihood of exposure to Nipah or Nipah-like viruses in India. These machine-learning approaches provide the first step in the sequence of studies required to assess the risk of Nipah virus spillover in India. Nipah virus surveillance not only within Kerala but also elsewhere in India would benefit from a research pipeline that included surveys of known and predicted reservoirs for serological evidence of past infection with Nipah virus (or cross reacting henipaviruses). Serosurveys should then be followed by longitudinal spatial and temporal studies to detect shedding and isolate virus from species with evidence of infection. Ecological studies will then be required to understand the dynamics governing prevalence and shedding in bats and the contacts that could pose a risk to public health.

<b>Diversity and endemism of butterflies of montane forests of Eravikulam National Park in the Western Ghats, India</b>

 In a study on the diversity and abundance of butterflies of montane forests of Eravikulam National Park in the Western Ghats, southern India, 85 species of butterflies belonging to six families were recorded.  This include eight species of butterflies that are endemic to the Western Ghats and one Near-Threatened species according to IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.  The family Nymphalidae, the brush-footed butterflies, was the major group of butterflies seen in the montane forests of Eravikulam National Park.  

<b>The amphibian diversity of selected agroecosystems in the southern Western Ghats, India</b>

A study was conducted to evaluate amphibian diversity in selected agroecosystems of central Kerala within the southern Western Ghats of India, from January to May 2017.  A total of 10 anurans were recorded from cashew plantation, coconut plantation, homegarden and rubber plantation using a combination of quadrat sampling and visual encounter survey.  We recorded three species endemic to the Western Ghats: Minervarya keralensis, Pseudophilautus wynaadensis and Indosylvirana urbis from these agroecosystems.  Pseudophilautus wynaadensis is a threatened species with Endangered status as per the IUCN Red List.  The present study shows a strong relationship between the types of agroecosystems and abundance of different amphibian species.  This study highlights the potential of agroecosystems within and adjacent to the Western Ghats mountains to act as important abodes to conserve generalist species of amphibians and to provide a suitable habitat for threatened and endemic species. 

<b>Small carnivores of Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, the southern Western Ghats, India</b>

The small carnivores of Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary were surveyed using camera traps.  The study was conducted between November 2016 and February 2017 at 111 camera trap locations.  Twenty-five mammal species were recorded, including nine small carnivores from the Mustelidae, Viverridae, Herpestidae and Felidae families.  Species included the Asian Small-clawed Otter Aonyx cinereus, Brown Palm Civet Paradoxurus jerdoni, Common Palm Civet Paradoxurus hermaphroditus, Small Indian Civet Viverricula indica, Indian Grey Mongoose Herpestes edwardsii, Ruddy Mongoose Herpestes smithii, Stripe-necked Mongoose Herpestes vitticollis, Jungle Cat Felis chaus and Leopard Cat Prionailurus bengalensis.  The most common small carnivore was Viverricula indica, followed by Herpestes vitticollis and Paradoxurus hermaphroditus.  Time activity patterns revealed that the viverrids were nocturnal while the herpestids were diurnal.  The sanctuary supports one endemic species of small carnivore, Paradoxurus jerdoni, and one threatened species, Aonyx cinereus, which is Vulnerable according to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.  This documentation highlights the biodiversity significance of Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary and the Nilgiri mountain range in the Western Ghats. 

<b>Birds of the Kerala Agricultural University campus, Thrissur District, Kerala, India - an update</b>

An updated checklist of the birds of the Kerala Agricultural University main campus is presented here.  The current checklist includes 172 species in 60 families and 17 orders.  The campus avifauna includes two Western Ghats endemic species and three globally threatened species.  The Kerala Agricultural University main campus also supports 11 species of birds included in Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and 16 species that are listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES).  Seasonality chart prepared using eBird is also provided for each of the species.

<b>Butterflies of the Kole Wetlands, a Ramsar Site in Kerala, India</b>

A study was conducted to understand the diversity and abundance of butterflies of Kole Wetlands. Fifty-eight species in five families were identified.  The relative abundance and seasonal variation in the abundance across the year have been discussed.  The endemism as well as the butterflies listed in the schedules of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 have also been discussed.

Sallywalkerana, a replacement name for Walkerana Dahanukar et al. 2016 (Anura: Ranixalidae)

Dahanukar et al. (2016: pp. 9234) made available the genus name Walkerana (type species: Ixalus diplostictus Günther, 1876: 574, Pl. 63 fig. C) within family Ranixalidae for the monophyletic group with reduced webbing endemic to the Western Ghats of India south of Palghat gap. We were unaware that this name was preoccupied by Walkerana Otte and Perez-Gelabert in Otte 2009, in Insecta: Orthoptera: Gryllidae. As a result, a replacement name for this genus of frogs becomes necessary. Here we propose Sallywalkerana gen. nov. as the replacement name for Walkerana Dahanukar, Modak, Krutha, Nameer, Padhye & Molur, 2016.

Small carnivores of Parambikulam Tiger Reserve, southern Western Ghats, India

The first ever detailed study on the small carnivores of the Parambikulam Tiger Reserve (PkTR) in the southern Western Ghats, using camera trap techniques, reported 11 species.  A total of 1,350 camera-trap nights were used for the study.  This was supplemented with 242km of day transects and 344km of night transects using spot-lights.  The small carnivores reported were the Small Indian Civet Viverricula indica, Common Palm Civet Paradoxurus hermaphroditus, Brown Palm Civet Paradoxurus jerdoni, Indian Grey Mongoose Herpestes edwardsii, Stripe-necked Mongoose Herpestes vitticollis, Brown Mongoose Herpestes fuscus, Ruddy Mongoose Herpestes smithii, Smooth-coated Otter Lutrogale perspicillata, Nilgiri Marten Martes gwatkinsii, Jungle Cat Felis chaus and Leopard Cat Prionailurus bengalensis.  About 90% of the small carnivores captured in the camera traps in PKTR were members of the Viverridae family such as the Small Indian Civet (31.67%), Common Palm Civet (30%) and Brown Palm Civet (28.33%).  The study recorded all the four species of mongoose known from the Western Ghats from PkTR.  Two out of the 11 small carnivores belong to the ‘Vulnerable’ category on the IUCN Red List. 

Recent records and distribution of the Indian Brown Mongoose Herpestes fuscus Gray, 1837 (Mammalia: Carnivora: Herpestidae) from the southern Western Ghats, India

We are reporting four new records of Brown Mongoose Herpestes fuscus Gray, 1837 from four protected areas in Western Ghats including Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuary, Periyar Tiger Reserve and Pampadum Shola National Park and one new site record outside a protected area from Pambanar Tea plantation in Idukki dt. situated in Kerala part of southern Western Ghats. An updated distribution map of Brown Mongoose in Western Ghats is presented here.  

First record of Dobson’s Long-tongued Fruit Bat Eonycteris spelaea (Dobson, 1871) (Mammalia: Chiroptera: Pteropodidae) from Kerala, India

A new site record for the Dobson‘s Long-tongued Fruit Bat Eonycteris spelaea (Pteropodidae, Chiroptera) is presented from Kerala, India.  A revised distribution map of the species is also given.  The morphometry of Eonycteris spelaea is discussed. DNA sequences have been deposited in GenBank.  

Leaping frogs (Anura: Ranixalidae) of the Western Ghats of India: An integrated taxonomic review

Leaping frogs of the family Ranixalidae are endemic to the Western Ghats of India and are currently placed in a single genus, Indirana.  Based on specimens collected from their entire range and a comprehensive study of type material defining all known species, we propose a revised taxonomy for the leaping frogs using an integrative approach including an analysis of the mitochondrial 16S rRNA and nuclear rhodopsin genes, as well as multivariate morphometrics. Both genetic and morphological analyses suggest that the genus Indirana is paraphyletic and a distinct monophyletic group, Walkerana gen. nov is described herein.  The new genus is separated from Indirana sensu stricto by an apomorphic character state of reduced webbing, with one phalange free on the first and second toe (vs. no free phalanges), two phalanges free on the third and fifth toe (vs. one free phalange), and three phalanges free on the fourth toe (vs. 2–2½ phalanges free).  This review includes (i) identification of lectotypes and redescription of three species of the genus Walkerana; (ii) identification of lectotypes for Indirana beddomii and I. semipalmata and their redescription; (iii) redescription of I. brachytarsus and I. gundia; and (iv) descriptions of four new species, namely, I. duboisi and I. tysoni from north of the Palghat gap, and I. yadera and I. sarojamma from south of the Palghat gap; and (iv) a key to the genera and species in the family Ranixalidae. 

A preliminary checklist of spiders (Araneae: Arachnida) in Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Western Ghats, India

A preliminary study was conducted to document spider diversity in Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary, Idukki District, Kerala State in southern India.  The study was conducted from October to November 2012.  A total of 101 species of spiders belonging to 65 genera from 29 families were identified from the sanctuary.  This accounted for 6.98% of Indian spider species, 17.81% of Indian spider genera and 48.33% of the spider families of India.  The dominant families were Lycosidae (11 species) and Araneidae (10).  Two endemic genera of Indian spiders such as Annandaliella and Neoheterophrictus were found at Chinnar, each representing one species each, and belonging to the family Theraphosidae.  A guild structure analysis of the spiders revealed seven feeding guilds such as orb weavers, stalkers, ground runners, foliage runners, sheet web builders, space web builders and ambushers. 

Checklist of Marine Mammals of Kerala - a reply to Kumarran (2016) and the updated Checklist of Marine Mammals of Kerala

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Birds of sacred groves of northern Kerala, India

<p>Sacred groves are patches of vegetation preserved due to  religious or cultural tradition.  They are protected through spiritual beliefs.  Sacred groves provide an excellent abode to the biodiversity of the region where they are located.   Scientific exploration of fauna from sacred groves of India is few and far between.  The present study was conducted to explore the bird diversity and abundance in 15 selected sacred groves of northern Kerala, eight from Kannur District and seven from Kasargod District each.  A total of 111 bird species were observed belonging to 49 families and 16 orders.  The sacred groves of northern Kerala support many of the ‘forest-birds’ such as the Grey Junglefowl <em>Gallus sonneratii</em>, Asian Fairy-bluebird <em>Irena puella</em>, Tickell’s Blue-flycatcher <em>Cyornis tickelliae</em>, Malabar Trogon <em>Harpactes fasciatus</em>, Heart-spotted Woodpecker <em>Hemicircus canente</em>, Malabar Whistling-Thrush <em>Myophonus horsfieldii</em>, Little Spiderhunter <em>Arachnothera longirostra, </em>etc.  The sacred groves of northern Kerala also support two endemic bird species of the Western Ghats, such as the Malabar Grey Hornbill <em>Ocyceros griseus</em> and Rufous Babbler <em>Turdoides subrufa</em>. Five species of raptors and four owl species were reported from the sacred groves of north Kerala during the present study.  The breeding of the White-bellied Sea-Eagle has been reported at Edayilakadu Kavu, a sacred grove in Kasargod District.  The sacred groves of northern Kerala also supported 17 species of long distant migratory birds.  Thazhe Kavu, recorded the Black-headed Ibis <em>Threskiornis melanocephalus</em>, a Near-Threatened bird according to IUCN.</p><div> </div>

Spiders of Kerala Agricultural University Campus, Thrissur, Kerala, India

<p>A total of 86 species of spiders belonging to 56 genera of 20 families have been recorded from the Kerala Agricultural University (KAU) campus, Thrissur, Kerala, southern India.  This represents 5.1% of the total spiders’ species and 33.33% of the total families of spiders recorded in India.  The dominant spider family at KAU campus is Araneidae with 18 species of nine genera. Salticidae is represented by 14 species of 13 genera.  Out of 252 endemic spiders of India, 16 have been reported from KAU campus.  Guild structure analysis shows spiders belonging to seven types of feeding guilds present in KAU campus.  Orb-web builders are the dominant feeding guild accounting for 34%, followed by stalkers (22%), ground runners (20%), ambushers (8%), scattered line weavers (8%), foliage runners (7%) and sheet-web builders (1%).</p><div> </div>

A checklist of mammals of Kerala, India

<p>A checklist of mammals of Kerala State is presented in this paper. Accepted English names, scientific binomen, prevalent vernacular names in Malayalam, IUCN conservation status, endemism, Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act schedules, and the appendices in the CITES, pertaining to the mammals of Kerala are also given. The State of Kerala has 118 species of mammals, 15 of which are endemic to Western Ghats, and 29 species fall under the various threatened categories of IUCN. </p><div> </div>

A checklist of the vertebrates of Kerala State, India

<p>Following the first publication on vertebrates of India (Blanford 1888–1890), a huge wealth of information has been compiled on the vertebrate fauna of various biogeographic zones of the country, especially the Western Ghats.  The state of Kerala comprising of a land area of 38,863km², 590km coastline, an intricate system of backwaters along the coast, tropical moist forests of the Western Ghats, the highly undulating terrain, and the tropical monsoon is a unique geographical and environmental entity rich in biodiversity.  A region-specific checklist that summarises and documents the current status of vertebrate diversity provides benchmark data for documentation and appreciation of biodiversity at regional level.  Further, with the current rate of global biodiversity loss and concordant conservation efforts, the taxonomic community has a greater responsibility to make scientific information available to scientists, policy makers, politicians, research students and all relevant stakeholders, an attempt that has been made in the present paper.  The State of Kerala has 1847 species of vertebrates in 330 families and 81 orders, of which 386 are endemic to the Western Ghats region (of the Western Ghats - Sri Lanka Hotspot), and 205 species as threatened. Six hundred and eighty species of vertebrates of Kerala have been listed in the various schedules of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, while 148 are listed in the different appendices of CITES. </p><p> </p>

A checklist of mammals of Kerala, India

<p>A checklist of mammals of Kerala State is presented in this paper. Accepted English names, scientific binomen, prevalent vernacular names in Malayalam, IUCN conservation status, endemism, Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act schedules, and the appendices in the CITES, pertaining to the mammals of Kerala are also given. The State of Kerala has 118 species of mammals, 15 of which are endemic to Western Ghats, and 29 species fall under the various threatened categories of IUCN. </p><div> </div>