De novo reciprocal translocation t(5;6)(q13;q34) in cattle: cytogenetic and molecular characterization

The cytogenetic analysis of a phenotypically normal bull from the Marchigiana breed revealed the presence of an abnormal karyotype due to the presence of a very long chromosome. This finding, identified in all the metaphases observed, was associated with the 2n = 60, XY karyotype, suggesting the presence of a reciprocal translocation. RBG- banding analyses identified a de novo reciprocal translocation involving BTA5 and BTA6, t(5;6)(q13;q34), while FISH analyses using cattle-specific BACs as probes enabled the confirmation and narrowed down the breakpoint regions. Array-CGH analysis also established that neither deletions nor duplications were present in the regions including the breakpoints, nor were they present elsewhere in the genome, confirming the balanced state of the translocation.

Physical mapping of 20 unmapped fragments of the btau_4.0 genome assembly in cattle, sheep and river buffalo

The recent advances in sequencing technology and bioinformatics have revolutionized genomic research, making the decoding of the genome an easier task. Genome sequences are currently available for many species, including cattle, sheep and river buffalo. The available reference genomes are very accurate, and they represent the best possible order of loci at this time. In cattle, despite the great accuracy achieved, a part of the genome has been sequenced but not yet assembled: these genome fragments are called unmapped fragments. In the present study, 20 unmapped fragments belonging to the Btau_4.0 reference genome have been mapped by FISH in cattle (Bos taurus, 2n = 60), sheep (Ovis aries, 2n = 54) and river buffalo (Bubalus bubalis, 2n = 50). Our results confirm the accuracy of the available reference genome, though there are some discrepancies between the expected localization and the observed localization. Moreover, the available data in the literature regarding genomic homologies between cattle, sheep and river buffalo are confirmed. Finally, the results presented here suggest that FISH was, and still is, a useful technology to validate the data produced by genome sequencing programs.

Cytogenetic elaboration of a novel reciprocal translocation in sheep

Reciprocal translocations represent one of the most common structural chromosomal rearrangements observed in both humans and domestic animals. In these translocations, the balanced forms are most frequent but may remain undetected because the carriers show a normal phenotype. For this reason, routine cytogenetic analysis of domestic animals should necessarily rely on banded karyotypes. In fact, during a screening analysis, carried out on phenotypically normal young sheep (Ovis aries, OAR, 2n = 54) from Laticauda-Comisana hybrids, a new structural rearrangement was detected. Two abnormal acrocentric chromosomes (the smallest and the largest one) were found in all metaphases of this carrier animal, suggesting the presence of a reciprocal translocation (rcp). CBA and RBA banding were performed in order to characterize the translocation, and FISH with chromosome-specific BAC probes and telomere probes was applied to confirm the cytogenetic data. The translocation was classified as rcp(4q;12q)(q13;q25).

Molecular characterization of Xp chromosome deletion in a fertile cow

A young cow of the Marchigiana breed (central Italy) with normal body conformation and external genitalia underwent routine cytogenetic analyses prior to its use for reproduction. After normal chromosome staining, only one X chromosome was observed with a normal diploid number (2n = 60) in all 200 studied cells. Subsequent cytogenetic analyses by using both CBA- and RBA-banding techniques evidenced that almost all the p arms of the other X chromosome was lacking. Detailed FISH-mapping analyses with BAC covering this Xp arm region demonstrated that this large chromosome region was deleted. RBA-banding showed that the deleted X was late replicating. CGH array analysis evidenced that deletion involves the Xp arm from the telomere to around 39.5 Mb, referring to the BosTau6 cattle genome assembly. This abnormality deletes about 40 Mb of the X chromosome sequence, but, despite the large number of genes deleted, none of them are programmed to escape from inactivation. This can explain the normal phenotype of the female which is actually pregnant. Finally, we evidenced, by analysis of an SNP mapped to the deleted region (SNP rs29024121), that the only normal (e.g. nondeleted) X chromosome present derives from the father. Hence, the deletion has a maternal origin.

Reciprocal translocations in cattle: frequency estimation

Chromosomal anomalies, like Robertsonian and reciprocal translocations, represent a big problem in cattle breeding as their presence induces, in the carrier subjects, a well-documented fertility reduction. In cattle, reciprocal translocations (RCPs, a chromosome abnormality caused by an exchange of material between non-homologous chromosomes) are considered rare as to date only 19 reciprocal translocations have been described. In cattle, it is common knowledge that the Robertsonian translocations represent the most common cytogenetic anomalies, and this is probably due to the existence of the endemic 1;29 Robertsonian translocation. However, these considerations are based on data obtained using techniques that are unable to identify all reciprocal translocations, and thus, their frequency is clearly underestimated. The purpose of this work is to provide a first realistic estimate of the impact of RCPs in the cattle population studied, trying to eliminate the factors that have caused an underestimation of their frequency so far. We performed this work using a mathematical as well as a simulation approach and, as biological data, we considered the cytogenetic results obtained in the last 15 years. The results obtained show that only 16% of reciprocal translocations can be detected using simple Giemsa techniques, and consequently, they could be present in no <0.14% of cattle subjects, a frequency five times higher than that shown by de novo Robertsonian translocations. This data is useful to open a debate about the need to introduce a more efficient method to identify RCP in cattle.

Molecular mechanisms of sexual development

Gonadal cellular organization is very similar in all vertebrates, though different processes can trigger bipotential gonads to develop into either testes or ovaries. While mammals and birds, apart from some exceptions, show genetic sex determination (GSD), other animals, like turtles and crocodiles, express temperature-dependent sex determination. In some groups of animals, GSD can also be overridden by hormone or temperature influences, indicating how fragile this system can be. This review aims to explain the fundamental molecular mechanisms involved in mammalian GSD, mainly referring to mouse as a major model. Conceivably, other mammals might show a molecular mechanism different from the commonly investigated murine species.

Characterization of Elastofibroma Dorsi with (18)FDG PET/CT: a retrospective study

Elastofibroma dorsi has been described in the literature as an unusual tumor or pseudotumor. However, autopsies and imaging studies have revealed that it is a non-negligible finding.

PURPOSE

The aim of this study has been to illustrate and become familiar with this type of lesion in order to prevent misdiagnosis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

From 3 December 2008 to 5 January 2010, 1,751 patients were evaluated with (18)FDG-PET/CT. Of these, 29 cases of elastofibroma dorsi were recorded as an incidental finding. A retrospective and descriptive analysis was performed on this study series.

RESULTS

The study showed a prevalence of 1.66%. Out of the 29 findings, 22 (75.86%) were females and 7 (24.14%) males. Seventeen (58.62%) cases were bilateral, 12 (41.38%) unilateral and the SUVmax ranged from 1.4 to 3.2. These lesions were reported as soft tissue density images with mild or moderate diffuse metabolic activity.

CONCLUSION

The elastofibroma dorsi is a relatively common finding in PET/CT that should be known in order to avoid making wrong diagnoses.

A new and unusual reciprocal translocation in cattle: rcp(11;25)(q11;q14-21)

A new and unusual reciprocal translocation was detected in a heifer of the Agerolese cattle breed during a routine cytogenetic screening carried out on 13 animals (2 males and 11 females) kept at the ConSDABI Conservation Center in Benevento (Southern Italy). The 13 animals investigated had a normal karyotype except for a 1-year-old female, which carried one autosome smaller than the smallest normal bovine autosomes. This small autosome showed very little C-banding in comparison to the other autosomes, while another medium-sized autosome showed 2 distinct and prominent C-bands. RBA-banding and karyotype analysis revealed that these 2 chromosomes were the result of a reciprocal translocation between chromosomes 11 and 25. FISH analysis with BAC142G06 mapping to the proximal (subcentromeric) region of both BTA25 and der11, BAC513H08 (ELN) mapping to BTA25q22dist and der25, and BAC533C11 mapping to the proximal region of BTA11 and der11 confirmed the localization of the breakpoints on band q11 (centromere) of chromosome 11 and q14-21 of chromosome 25. Ag-NOR and sequential RBA/Ag-NOR techniques detected the presence of NORs on both BTA11 and BTA25 and both der11 and der25. To our knowledge, this is the first report of a reciprocal translocation event in cattle with the breakpoint located in the centromeric region.

Chromosomal assignment of R-spondin genes in the donkey (Equus asinus, 2n = 62)

R-spondins constitute a recently discovered small family of growth factors, and the evidence of their role in several developmental pathways is growing fast. In this work we describe the chromosomal location of the four RSPO genes in the donkey. Using horse BACs, we localized RSPO1 on EAS 5q23, RSPO2 on EAS 12q13, RSPO3 on EAS 24q26, and RSPO4 on EAS 15p13. Moreover, RSPO2, RSPO3, and RSPO4 are the first genes mapped on donkey chromosomes 12, 24, and 15, respectively.

Cytogenetic and genetic studies in a hypospadic horse (Equus caballus, 2n = 64)

A 4-year-old male horse of Friesian breed with normal body conformation, development and libido, and showing an evident ventral penis deviation with hypospadias, underwent both cytogenetic and genetic investigation. Although the karyotype showed normal male arrangement (2n = 64,XY), one telomere of horse (ECA) chromosome 1 was shorter than both the other one and those of a normal horse (control), as revealed by CBA- and RBA-banding, and by Ag-NOR and FISH-mapping techniques using telomere PNA probes. Genetic investigation of the SRY and MAMLD1 coding sequences revealed a normal SRY sequence and a mutation in the MAMLD1 gene sequence: a homozygous change (C>A) was found, leading to the synthesis of an isoleucine, instead of a leucine. Although it is difficult to find a strict correlation between hypospadias and the genetic defects revealed by this investigation, this study is the first to be performed in a hypospadic horse using both cytogenetic and genetic investigation.

Reciprocal translocation t(4;7)(q14;q28) in cattle: molecular characterization

Cytogenetic analysis of a phenotypically normal young bull from the Marchigiana breed revealed the presence of an abnormal chromosome. The finding of one oversize chromosome in all metaphases, associated with a 2n = 60, XY karyotype, suggested that a reciprocal translocation had occurred. RBG-banding and FISH analyses, using specific bovine BAC probes, identified a de novo reciprocal translocation t(4;7)(q14;q28). The presence of rcp(4;7) was confirmed by FISH experiments using BTA4 and BTA7 whole chromosome probes. An array-CGH analysis (Agilent 244A) using a bovine custom design was performed to investigate if the translocation was associated with loss or gain of genetic material. The absence of a concomitant deletion or duplication at the break points allowed the balanced state of the translocation to establish. The analysis also revealed the presence of several CNVs throughout the genome. To our knowledge this is the first time the balanced condition of a cattle RCP has been ascertained using the array-CGH approach.

Oncological and Functional Results of Laparoscopic Radical Prostatectomy after 100 Procedures: Our Experience

Laparoscopic radical prostatectomy plays an emerging role in the surgical management of prostatic tumors. We present our experience of the first 100 cases of extraperitoneal laparoscopic radical prostatectomy. Our results about continence, erectile function and surgical margins are reported.

Materials and Methods

Between January 2005 and December 2007, 100 laparoscopic radical prostatectomies were performed by one surgeon. We retrospectively reviewed margins status, operative time, blood transfusion rates, time of catheterization, length of hospital stay, continence and potency rates.

Results

The operative time decreased during the learning curve. The mean duration of surgery was 240 minutes (in the first 25 procedures the median time was 320 minutes, while in the last 25 cases the mean duration was 200 minutes). Five conversions to open surgery were required owing to failure to progress. The overall rate of positive surgical margins was 15% in pT2 and 35% in pT3a tumors. We had 3 minor complications (two anastomotic leakage and one hemorrhage from the anastomosis) and 2 major complications (recto-urethral fistula). The mean intraoperative blood loss was 450 ml (range 200–1500). With regard to transfusion, 25 patients (25%) received their autologous units, while 2% of the patients required homologous units. The mean duration of catheterization was 7.8 days. The continence rate at 12 months was 85%; the potency rate was 55% at 12 months.

Conclusions

The results of the present study show that by using a rational approach to training, a general urologist with low experience in laparoscopy is able to safely perform laparoscopic radical prostatectomy, and with oncological and functional results comparable to those of other published series.

Transperitoneal Laparoscopic Radical Nephrectomy for a 12 cm Renal Mass

Laparoscopic radical nephrectomy is now considered a standard of care for patients with T1 renal carcinoma not suitable for nephron-sparing surgery. In the hands of experienced laparoscopic urological surgeons also T2 renal cell carcinoma can be approached through the laparoscopic technique. We present the video of a radical laparoscopic nephrectomy in a patient with a 12cm renal mass of the right kidney. We chose the transperitoneal approach; the operative time was 240 minutes. There were neither intra- nor post-operative complications. The patient was discharged at day 4 postoperatively.

[Anterior urethral therapy]

Surgical treatment of anterior urethral stenosis encompasses a large number of techniques. In literature there are few prospective studies that could compare the efficacy of different techniques. Most of these studies are retrospective and not multicentric. We present a review of the literature on the treatment of penile and bulbar strictures, focusing the attention on different kinds and numbers of complication, and showing shortand long-term results of each technique.

Anterior Urethral Therapy

Surgical treatment of anterior urethral stenosis encompasses a large number of techniques. In literature there are few prospective studies that could compare the efficacy of different techniques. Most of these studies are retrospective and not multicentric. We present a review of the literature on the treatment of penile and bulbar strictures, focusing the attention on different kinds and numbers of complication, and showing short- and long-term results of each technique.

[Oncological and functional results of laparoscopic radical prostatectomy after 100 procedures: our experience]

Laparoscopic radical prostatectomy plays an emerging role in the surgical management of prostatic tumors. We present our experience of the first 100 cases of extraperitoneal laparoscopic radical prostatectomy. Our results about continence, erectile function and surgical margins are reported. MATERIALS AND METHODS. Between January 2005 and December 2007, 100 laparoscopic radical prostatectomies were performed by one surgeon. We retrospectively reviewed margins status, operative time, blood transfusion rates, time of catheterization, length of hospital stay, continence and potency rates. RESULTS. The operative time decreased during the learning curve. The mean duration of surgery was 240 minutes (in the first 25 procedures the median time was 320 minutes, while in the last 25 cases the mean duration was 200 minutes). Five conversions to open surgery were required owing to failure to progress. The overall rate of positive surgical margins was 15% in pT2 and 35% in pT3a tumors. We had 3 minor complications (two anastomotic leakage and one hemorrhage from the anastomosis) and 2 major complications (recto-urethral fistula). The mean intraoperative blood loss was 450 ml (range 200-1500). With regard to transfusion, 25 patients (25%) received their autologous units, while 2% of the patients required homologous units. The mean duration of catheterization was 7.8 days. The continence rate at 12 months was 85%; the potency rate was 55% at 12 months. CONCLUSIONS. The results of the present study show that by using a rational approach to training, a general urologist with low experience in laparoscopy is able to safely perform laparoscopic radical prostatectomy, and with oncological and functional results comparable to those of other published series.

The case of an Sry-negative XX male Pug with an inguinal gonad

A case of intersexuality in a Pug that was bought as a male in a pet shop is described. The dog was presented at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital, University of Turin, for a reddish mass protruding from the prepuce. The mass had the aspect of an enlarged clitoris, with a caudoventral direction and a dorsal urethral ostium. A gonad was palpable in the left inguinal region. Laparotomy confirmed ultrasound detection of an abdominal uterine structure together with the right gonad. The histology of both gonads was similar, showing an exclusively masculine character, with seminiferous tubules lined only by Sertoli cells; the uterus showed a normal histological structure. Karyological analysis revealed a female karyotype (78,XX), and polymerase chain reaction showed the absence of Sry. The diagnosis was an XX male. The pathogenesis of the XX sex reversal syndrome in dogs is not completely understood, as Sry, the master gene regulating testis differentiation, is not present; to date, no genetic cause has been identified for this phenotypic condition in dogs. This case is unusual because the dog showed an inguinal testis, implying a partial activity of the mechanisms leading to abdominal testis translocation along a gubernaculum and transinguinal migration.

Mutations in the RSPO1 coding region are not the main cause of canine SRY-negative XX sex reversal in several breeds

This report details a case of SRY-negative XX sex reversal in a mixed breed dog and surveys affected dogs of several breeds for mutations in RSPO1 coding regions. Genomic DNA from the mixed breed case was evaluated for mutations in candidate genes. Sequencing identified a homozygous G to A transition in RSPO1 exon 4 that changes a highly conserved amino acid codon in the thrombospondin domain. The possibility that this was a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) could not be excluded by genotyping family members. Therefore, the coding region of RSPO1 was sequenced in a survey of affected dogs, which identified a T to C transition (exon 3) in some, the above G to A transition (exon 4) in others, and no change in the remaining affected dogs. Genotypes at these base pair positions were not uniquely associated with the affected phenotype in any breed, indicating the identified transitions are most likely SNPs, not causative mutations for this canine disorder. However, the possibility that polymorphisms play a modifier role, such as changing threshold or severity of phenotypic expression in a mixed breed dog, cannot be excluded. This study emphasizes the importance of canine pedigree, breed, and population studies in evaluating candidate mutations.

A new case of rob(14;17) in cattle

Robertsonian translocations, also called centric fusions, represent the most frequent chromosome anomalies in cattle, and rob(1;29) is the most widespread. However, centric fusions involving other chromosomes have been discovered in different cattle breeds. Here we report the appearance of a new case of rob(14;17) in an Italian cattle breed more than ten years after the first and only case had been observed, and we demonstrate the independent origin of this anomaly from the previous case.

Clinical, cytogenetic and molecular evaluation in a dog with bilateral cryptorchidism and hypospadias

The aim of this study was to estimate prognostic factors in a Dalmatian dog with bilateral cryptorchidism and hypospadias. Cytogenetic and molecular analyses revealed a normal karyotype (2n = 78,XY) and the presence of SRY, INSL3 and RXFP2 genes with a normal DNA sequence for SRY and RXFP2, while the INSL3 sequence differed slightly from the normal one due to a heterozygous nucleotide change involving amino acid 22 of the INSL3 dog precursor protein. Levels of plasmatic testosterone were only 0.01 ng/ml, while FSH and LH serum levels were not detectable. After the human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) test, the serum testosterone level was 0.01 ng/ml. Therefore, the phenotypic aetiology of this subject can not be well-defined because cryptorchidism and hypospadias were frequent clinical features with high genetic heterogeneity.

Characterization of a balanced reciprocal translocation, rcp(9;11)(q27;q11) in cattle

Cytogenetic analysis of a phenotypically normal young bull from Marchigiana breed revealed the presence of an abnormal karyotype. The observation of longer and smaller chromosomes than BTA1 and BTA29, respectively in all metaphases suggested the presence of a reciprocal translocation. RBG-banding confirmed this hypothesis revealing the involvement of BTA9 and BTA11. FISH analyses using cattle-specific BAC clones (474A12 and 293G09 for BTA9; 035D03 for BTA11) identified rcp(9;11)(q27;q11) in the two regions affected. Moreover analyses performed on both parents established the 'de novo' origin of the anomaly. Comparison with human homologue sequences (HSA6q24.3-->q25.3 for BTA9q27 and HSA2q11.1-->q12.1 for BTA11q11) revealed that both breakpoint regions are gene rich as up to date at least 200 genes have been localized in these regions. Thus, further analyses are required to identify the sequences disrupted by the breakpoints and to verify their consequences on rcp carrier phenotype.

[Features of diabetic angiopathy: impotence]

Erectile dysfunction occurs more frequently in the diabetic population than in the general population. This article analyzes a review of this pathology, its prevalence and incidence in the diabetic population, its multifactor origin, and how these causes interact with each other and the therapy required.

Transitional Cell Carcinoma of the Posterior Urethra in Men: Our Experience

We present the experience of the Division of Urology of Mantova Hospital about the primitive carcinoma of the posterior male urethra. This kind of tumor is very rare and there are't great experiences that permit to define a standardize therapy.

Material and Methods.

Three cases of primary posterior urethral carcinoma who had been treated at our institution between 1999 and 2001 were retrospectively analyzed. The location of the tumor was in 2 cases in the prostatic urethra and in 1 case in the membranosus urethra. The treatment was cistoprostatectomy in 1 case, cistoprostcatectomy associated with penectomy in the case of carcinoma of the membranosus urethra and a prostatectomy in one case of the carcinoma of the prostatic urethra. In 2 cases an adiuvant chemotherapy with cispaltinum was performed while in the third patient a chemiotherapy with gemcitabina was performed at the presentation of a local relapse of tumor.

Results.

In the case of carcinoma of the prostatic urethra treated with cistoprostatectomy and uretrhectomy and adiuvant chemotherapy there was a good local and distand controll of the cancer with a follow up of 24 months. The patients with carcinoma of the membranosus urethra treated with cistoprostcatectomy associated with penectomy and adiuvant chemiotherapy had a local relapse at 24 months and was treated with radiotherapy. The patient treated with only prostatectomy presented a local relapse at 2 months and distant metastasis at 15 months. After 2 years this patient is still alive but in clinical progression.

Conclusions.

The most adequate treatment in the cases of posterior urethral cancer seems the major surgical treatment with urethrectomy associated with radical cistectomy. In advanced stages chemotherapy which by necessity must follow the guidelines established for the treatment of other urothelial cell malignancies seems to give good results. The follow-up of these patients has to be very close.

Molecular analysis of an XY mare with gonadal dysgenesis

In this study, cytogenetic analysis of an infertile mare revealed a 64, XY karyotype. The XY sex-reversed animal had a female phenotype with gonadal dysgenesis. Using Southern blot analysis, we tested for the presence of two Y-specific genes SRY and ZFY by using DNA isolated from peripheral blood leukocytes. The results showed that at least the DNA-binding domain of the SRY gene was deleted from the Y chromosome of the XY mare but that the ZFY gene was present on this chromosome.

Five Year Results after Radical Prostatectomy in Patients with pT3a Patological Stage and Positive Surgical Margins

Five year results in men with pT3a disease and positive surgical margins after radical retropubic prostatectomy were evaluated.

Materials and Methods

Between 1/90 and 12/98, 250 men underwent radical retropubic prostatectomy for prostate cancer. In 63 cases (25%) we found positive surgical margin. In these group 32 patients presented pathological stage T3a N0 with a Gleason score between 5 and 8. In 21 patients no adiuvant therapy was made while 11 patients underwent an adiuvant therapy (in 2 patients ormonal therapy, in 9 radiotherapy).

Results

The actuarial 5 years post prostatectomy biochemical, local and distant recurrence rates were 9%, 3% e 3 % respectively. For 21 men who didn't receive adiuvant therapy, 17 were biochemical recurrence free, in 3 cases a biochemical recurrence occurred, 1man underwent a radiotherapy of salvatage for a local recurrence. For 9 patients who received adiuvant radiation therapy, 8 are biochemical free while 1 presents metastatic desease at 5 years of follow-up. The 2 patients who received adiuvant hormonal therapy are biochemical recurrence free at 5 years.

Conclusions

The role of positive surgical margins on local recurrence of desease is still under debate. In our experience isolated local recurrence is rare during long term follow up of men with pT3a No stage and positive surgical margins at radica prostatectomy. The adiuvant radiotherapy seems to give a good local desease control at 5 years of follow-up.

Time course of female-to-male sex reversal in 38,XX fetal and postnatal pigs

In an attempt to understand the etiology of intersexuality in pigs, we thoroughly analyzed the gonads of 38,XX (SRY negative) female to male sex-reversed animals at different developmental stages: during fetal life [50 and 70 days postcoitum (dpc)], just after birth [35 days postpartum (dpp)] and during adulthood. For each animal studied, we performed parallel histological and ultrastructural analyses on one gonad and RT-PCR analysis on the other gonad in order to define the expression profiles of sexually regulated genes: SOX9, 3beta-HSD, P450 aromatase, AMH, FOXL2, and Wnt4. Light and electron microscopic examination showed that testicular cords differentiated in XX sex-reversed gonads but were hypoplastic. Although the testicular cords contained gonia at the fetal stages, the germ cells had all died through apoptosis within a few weeks after birth. Ultrastructurally normal Leydig cells also differentiated, but later, and enclosed whorl-like residual bodies. At the fetal stages, three of the six genes studied in the intersex gonads presented, as early as 50 dpc, a modified expression profile corresponding to an elevated expression of SOX9 and the beginning of AMH and P450 aromatase gene transcription. In addition to genes involved in the testicular pathway, the same gonads expressed FOXL2, an ovarian-specific factor. The ovaries of true hermaphrodites were ineffective in ensuring correct folliculogenesis and presented abnormal expression profiles of ovarian specific genes after birth. These results indicate that the genes involved in this pathology act very early during gonadogenesis and affect the ovary-differentiating pathway with variable expressivity from ovarian germ cell depletion through to trans-differentiation into testicular structures.

[Interstitial cystitis: epidemiology]

The epidemiological assessment of intestitial cystitis (IC) is not definitive as no diagnostic criteria, such as endoscopy or biochemical and anatomopathological examination, exist. The diagnosis is solely based on symptoms like urgency, frequency and pelvic pain. The first studies on the population date back from 20 years ago and show a percentage of 10 cases every 100 thousand inhabitants. There is weak link between genetic factors, immunological diseases, previous cystitis or eating habits and intestitial cystitis. Epidemiological studies have highlight the frequency of this disease, and stressed the importance of stricted behavioural rules for the first stages of intestitial cystitis.

[Interstitial cystitis: surgical treatment]

Surgical therapy of interstitial cystitis must never be considered a first option but must be reserved for cases, less than 10%, in which conservative therapy has proven ineffectual. Surgical therapy includes a variety that started at the turn of the century. Neurosurgical denervation and perivesical denervation like cysto-cystoplasty and cystolysis, manipulate the innervation to reduce the bladder's hypersensitivity. This surgical approach may be considered in patients in whom bladder capacity is normal. The results are uncertain and the complications like neurogenic bladder relevant. Enterocystoplasty is much more widespread because interstitial cystitis is a benign disease that rarely required radical surgery. Augmentation cystoplasty and substitution cystoplasty are two variants but only the later has a rationale as it involves the resection of the detrusor which is the source of the pain. Detubularization drastically reduced urinary incontinence. The resection of the detrusor can be supratrigonal, subtrigonal or at the proximal urethra like in the orthotopic neobladder. If urinary diversion is chosen, the bladder must be removed. Before recommending surgical therapy each patient should undergo tests for the localization of the pain; moreover psychological and gynaecological evaluations should be made. If the bladder capacity exceeds 400 cc surgical operation is not advisable. If, on the other hand, the bladder capacity is lower than 400 cc substitution cystoplasty is first choice. If the patient suffers from trigonal cystitis or urethral hypersensitivity, urinary diversion is a better therapy. According to the questionnaires send to the Urologic Departments in Lombardy in 1998, the most widespread type of operation seems to be supratrigonal cystectomy + enterocystoplasty and augmentation cystoplasty. Subtrigonal cystectomy or urinary diversion are only occasionally chosen; continent pouch is the least frequent therapy at all.

Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis of genes involved in gonadal differentiation in pigs

In mammals, testis development is initiated in the embryo as a response to the expression of the sex-determining gene, SRY. The time course of SRY expression during gonadal differentiation in the male has been described in detail only in mice and sheep. In this study, we used reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis to define the SRY transcription profile in pig genital ridges. SRY transcripts were first detectable from 23 days postcoitum (dpc), then declined sharply after 35 dpc. None were detected at 60 dpc. In addition, we analyzed temporal expression of other genes known to be involved in mammalian sex determination: WT-1, SF-1, SOX9, and AMH. A key stage seems to be 28 dpc, in which SOX9 expression switches between the male and female, and AMH expression begins to attest to Sertoli cell differentiation and to correspond to seminiferous cord formation in the male. Expression of gonadotropin receptors and aromatase was also investigated in porcine gonads, and we showed that their transcripts were detected very early on, especially in the male: 25 dpc for the LH receptor (rLH) and aromatase, and 28 dpc for the FSH receptor (rFSH). In the female, aromatase transcripts were not detected until 70 dpc, and rFSH expression occurred later: at 45 dpc at the onset of meiosis. Moreover, no difference was observed between the sexes for the onset of rLH transcription at 25 dpc. Such a thorough study has never been performed on pigs; developmental analysis will be useful for investigating sex-reversed gonads and determining ontogeny in intersexuality, a common pathology in pigs.

Porcine Dax-1 gene: isolation and expression during gonadal development

The identification of XY females carrying a duplication of a region of the X chromosome (Xp21) led to the hypothesis that a double dose of a gene in the duplicated region causes sex reversal (DSS; dosage sensitive sex reversal). A gene isolated from this region, named DAX-1 (DSS-AHC critical region on the X), encodes a new member of the nuclear hormone receptor family. Here, we describe the isolation of porcine Dax-1 and the analysis of its pattern of expression both during foetal development and in several adult tissues. Dax-1 is expressed in the adrenals, the pituitary gland and the gonads at various stages of differentiation. In gonads, Dax-1 expression starts between 21 and 23 days post coitum in both XX and XY urogenital ridges then continues to be expressed until adult age. The expression in these tissues indicates the involvement of DAX-1 in the development and the function of the reproductive system at multiple levels.

Mapping in pig of genes involved in sexual differentiation: AMH, WT1, FTZF1, SOX2, SOX9, AHC, and placental and embryonic CYP19

Intersexuality has been reported in pigs and investigations are in progress to identify and physically map the genes involved in sex-reversal. In this study we have mapped on porcine chromosomes seven genes which might be implicated in this developmental pathway. Four genes were mapped by radioactive in situ hybridization: AMH (Anti-Müllerian Hormone) and WT1 (Wilms' Tumor gene 1) were both mapped to pig chromosome 2 (SSC2) in the q14-->q21 and p14-->q11 regions, placental CYP19 (cytochrome P450, subfamily XIX) and FTZF1 (fushi tarazu factor [Drosophila] homolog 1, alias SF1 [steroidogenic factor 1]) to pig chromosome 1 (SSC1) in the q14-->q17 and q210-->q211 regions respectively. Four other genes were regionally located by PCR analysis on a cytogenetically characterized porcine somatic cell hybrid panel: a second CYP19 gene (expressed in embryo) was mapped to porcine 1q12-->q17, AHC (alias DAX1, adrenal hypoplasia congenital) to porcine Xp24, SOX2 and SOX9 (SRY sex determining region Y-box 2 and 9) to 13q23-->q41 and 12p13-->p11 respectively. These results are in global agreement with mapping data available in other mammalian species.

Genetic analysis of 38XX males with genital ambiguities and true hermaphrodites in pigs

In pig, the frequency of intersexuality ranges from 0.1 to 0.6%, depending on the breed. In a closed pig herd at INRA an intersex condition was observed in 0.75% of 'females'. The present study describes 11 animals with a 38XX karyotype and the presence of testicular tissue. Phenotypically, all presented with abnormal external or/and internal genitalia. Southern blot analysis with Y-specific probes (SRY and ZFY) revealed the absence of Y material in all animals tested. By polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification, 10 of 11 intersex pigs lacked the SRY gene in gonad DNA. These data are compatible with an autosomally (or pseudoautosomally) determined mechanism. Moreover, analysis of familial cases seemed to indicate that 38XX male pseudohermaphrodites and 38XX true hermaphrodites may represent alternative manifestations of the same genetic defect.