Modelling of salt uptake for salt content standardization in dry-cured ham

Salt content standardization in dry-cured ham production is complex as there are many factors that influence salt uptake. The aim of this work was to study and model salt uptake as a function of salting time and the characteristics of green ham in two different ham types using a large amount of data obtained from an inline non-invasive characterization technology. The usefulness of these models to standardize the salt content of the industrial production was also evaluated. Magnetic induction technology was used to characterize lean and fatty hams in order to further model the salt uptake using different statistical methods. Salt content increased with the salting time showing an asymptotic behaviour which was lower in fatty hams. The best models were those that considered the salting time, weight, and fat content of hams as model independent variables. These models are helpful for salt content standardization within the industry and can be used to simulate process modifications and avoid the time-consuming and costly trial and error tests.

Fabrication of all-starch-based hydrogels as eco-friendly water-absorbent resin: Structure and swelling behaviors

Water-absorbent resin has gained wide applications due to the capability in absorbing and retaining substantial amounts of water, while it's a challenge to fabricate a full biobased water-absorbent resin with excellent biodegradability and eco-friendliness. In this study, starch was sulfonated (SS) and crosslinked with epichlorohydrin to fabricate all-starch-based hydrogels (SSH) as water-absorbent resin with advantages of intrinsic biodegradability and low cost. The results confirmed that the hydrogen atoms of -OH groups in starch chains were partially replaced by -SO3- and the substitution degree (DS) of SS reached 0.008-0.344. By controlling DS and gelation process of SS, the swelling ratio (Qe) of SSH was improved in distilled water, reaching 244.47 g/g for samples prepared using SS with medium DS (SSMDSH). SSMDSH showed relatively loose network structure with low cross-linking density and large pore size. Meanwhile, -SO3- groups on SSMDSH chains facilitated strong ion-dipole interactions with water molecules, resulting in an increase in content of non-freezing bound water within hydrogels and thus improvement in water absorption capacity. Besides, SSH showed desired fertilizer absorption performance and complete biodegradability in α-amylase solution, which made it to be a promising candidate in agricultural fields as eco-friendly water-absorbent resin.

Near infrared sensors for the precise characterization of salt content in canned tuna fish

Non-invasive technologies could help to guarantee quality standards of canned tuna fish. The aim of this study was to investigate the ability of bench-top (FT-NIR) and low-cost (LC-NIR) near infrared spectrometers to determine salt content and texture in canned tuna. Salt content distribution was also investigated using hyperspectral imaging (HSI) and computed tomography. Spectra were acquired on canned tuna and reference analysis performed. Partial least squares regression and discriminant analysis were used to develop salt content predictive and texture classification models. Salt content predictive errors were 0.10%, 0.22% and 0.22% for FT-NIR, LC-NIR and HSI, respectively. Salt content was not always homogeneously distributed in the can which was attributed to the salt content differences between internal and external parts of the tuna fish. Low-cost sensors could be a suitable solution to standardise the production and enable precise nutritional labelling, but more sophisticated algorithms are needed to identify textural defects.

Computed tomography and predictive microbiology for non-invasive evaluation of the impact of dry-cured ham production process conditions on the behaviour of Listeria monocytogenes and Clostridium botulinum

Variability of salt content in dry-cured ham production can pose microbiological food safety issues, especially in salt reduced and/or non-nitrified products. In this regard, computed tomography (CT) could help to non-invasively characterised the product to further adjust the production process and ensure its safety. The aim of this work was to study the application of CT to estimate a_w in dry-cured ham to be used by predictive microbiology to evaluate the impact of the production process on the behaviour of Listeria monocytogenes and Clostridium botulinum. Effect of nitrite elimination and fat content of hams was also evaluated. Thirty hams with two different fat content levels were characterised analytically and using CT at different key points in the process. The safety of the process was evaluated by applying predictive microbiology using both analytical and CT data as model inputs. Results showed that nitrite and fat content had an impact on the predicted growth potential of the pathogens evaluated. After the resting period, if no nitrite is added, the time needed for 1 log increase (t_inc) of L. monocytogenes would shorten by 26% and 22% in lean and fat hams, respectively. After week 12, important differences on t_inc values for C. botulinum were found between both groups of hams (ca. 40% shorter in fat hams). CT can provide reliable pixel-to-pixel information for predictive microbiology to evaluate the growth of relevant pathogens, but further studies are needed to validate this combination as a tool to evaluate the safety of the production process.

Clinical features and management of the developmental dysplasia of the hip in congenital muscular torticollis

PURPOSE

A consistent relationship between CMT and DDH has been established. However, whether the presence of CMT has effect on clinical outcomes of DDH remains unanswered. This study aimed to evaluate clinical features and management of DDH in patients with CMT.

METHODS

We reviewed the medical records of 54 patients (91 hips) simultaneously diagnosed with DDH and CMT and included 54 patients (97 hips) with only DDH by random number method as the control group. Clinical and examination outcomes were recorded and compared, respectively.

RESULTS

The mean follow-up was 18.1 ± 14.5 months (range, 2 to 72 mo). In the DDH and CMT group, the age of initial treatment was lower (100.8 ± 92.3 vs. 229.0 ± 157.4 d, P < 0.001), and the rate of male significantly increased (42.6% vs. 11.1%, P < 0.001). Before treatment, development degree of hip was better than that of the DDH group. Therefore, patients with CMT had approximately 14 times greater odds of conservative treatment success than children in the DDH group (OR, 13.84; 95% CI, 3.16 to 60.60).

CONCLUSION

We concluded that CMT was not the risk factor for the failure of treatment. On the contrary, the identification of CMT may be beneficial to early discovery and treatment of DDH when we remain vigilant to perform physical exam and screen imaging of DDH for patients with CMT.

The nomogram predicting the early failure rate of the Pavlik harness for developmental dysplasia of the hip in infants under 6 months of age

BACKGROUND

The aim of our study was to develop a nomogram predicting the early failure rate of Pavlik harness in infants under 6 months of age with developmental dysplasia of the hip (DDH).

METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed the clinical data of 227 patients (372 hips) with DDH who were treated with Pavlik harness at our institution from August 2019 to January 2022. Fifty-eight patients (102 hips) failed the Pavlik harness treatment, and 169 patients (270 hips) were successfully treated. Then, the independent risk factors for treatment failure were determined via univariate and multivariate logistic regression and used to generate the nomogram predicting the failure rate of the Pavlik harness.

RESULTS

It was found that age at initial treatment (OR 1.031, 95% CI 1.022-1.040, P < 0.001), angle α (OR 0.723, 95% CI 0.671-0.779, P < 0.001), and concomitant deformity (OR 0.129, 95% CI 0.036-0.459, p = 0.002) were independent risk factors for treatment failure. The nomogram showed good discrimination [the area under the curve (AUC): 0.862], good calibration, and a net benefit in the range of probabilities between 5 and 90% according to the decision curve analysis.

CONCLUSION

This study successfully established the nomogram prediction model based on three independent risk factors. Due to the high level of predicting accuracy, this nomogram could be a useful resource for pediatric orthopedic surgeons to identify patients at major risk of Pavlik harness failure who might need more reliable treatments.

Restoration of the intravertebral stability in Kümmell's disease following the treatment of severe postmenopausal osteoporosis by 1-34PTH-a retrospective study

Following the 1-34PTH application for conservative treatment of Kümmell's disease, the intravertebral cleft was filled or bridged by the osseous tissue; the radiological evidence of further collapsing was absent. Pain and the neurological disorder were relieved; bone turnover markers, BMD as well as the health-related quality of life were improved.

INTRODUCTION

Kümmell's disease (KD) patients with severe osteoporosis were applied by the 1-34PTH; the fracture union and the increased bone mineral density (BMD) following this treatment were retrospectively reviewed.

METHODS

Twenty-one postmenopausal osteoporosis (PMOP) patients with KD received at least 6 months of 1-34PTH treatment. The medical records, including clinical evaluation symptoms, radiological evaluation for bone union and the stability of intravertebral vacuum cleft (IVC), BMD, and laboratory examination for osteoporosis recovery and health-related quality of life (HRQOL), were reviewed.

RESULTS

From baseline to month 12, visual analog scale decreased from 8.24 ± 0.54 to 1.71 ± 0.56 (P < 0.001) and the modified Japanese Orthopedic Association scores increased from 6.86 ± 1.77 to 10.43 ± 1.29 (P < 0.001). Sagittal CT demonstrated that the IVC was filled or bridged by the osseous tissue in all patients. Within the vertebra, the IVC area (IVCA) decreased from 4.50 ± 2.50 to 0 mm² (P = 0.001) and the mineralized bone area (MBA) increased from 170.91 ± 102.23 to 259.56 ± 98.60 mm² (P < 0.001). The area ratio of IVC to vertebra decreased from 0.97 ± 0.46 to 0% (P < 0.001), and the area ratio of mineral bone to vertebra was increased from 32.85 ± 14.51 to 54.97 ± 14.01% (P < 0.001). The kyphosis angle increment was 3.43 ± 1.80°, and the loss rate of anterior border height was 11.14 ± 4.82%. No differences were found in posterior border height and spinal canal diameter. The PINP, β-CTx, BMD, and Short Form-36 Health Survey scores markedly increased.

CONCLUSIONS

In KD patients with severe PMOP, 1-34PTH treatment could alleviate the clinical evaluation symptoms, facilitate the recovery of the intravertebral stability, ameliorate the BMD, and improve the HRQoL.

The effects of home confinement on pediatric fractures during the COVID 19 outbreak

OBJECTIVE

To control the transmission of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the Chinese government encouraged people to stay at home. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of home confinement on the occurrence of fractures among children.

STUDY DESIGN

We retrospectively reviewed children admitted to Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, for traumatic injury from January 24 to March 10, 2020, and the same time period in 2017, 2018 and 2019. At the same time, children with fracture were screened out and the date for the past 4 years was compared in terms of etiology, location of fracture, sex and age to evaluate the effects of home confinement on the epidemiology of pediatric fractures during the COVID-19 outbreak.

RESULTS

There were 6066 fractures in5,346 patients in 2017-2019, and 1034 fractures in 862 patients in 2020; the number of patients in all years reached a peak at the age of 2 to 4 years. The patients were slightly younger in 2020 than in 2017-2019 (t = 9.953, 95% CI: 0.846-1.262), and the proportion of boys in 2017-2019 is higher than in 2020 (X² = 6.944, P = 0.008). Home confinement and traffic restriction resulted in a reduction in traffic accidents-associated fractures among children (X² = 16.399, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Home confinement lead to the significant reduction in the number of pediatric fractures, especially in male children, but the number of patients under 4 years old was still considerable, and the proportion of younger patients even increased. Therefore, the perspective of children should not be relaxed during home isolation.

Elastic Stable Intramedullary Nailing for Pediatric Humeral Shaft Fractures Under Ultrasonographic Guidance: A Retrospective Study

OBJECTIVE

Fixation with an elastic stable intramedullary nail (ESIN) is a widely used technique for the treatment of humeral shaft fractures. Ultrasonography (US) is used as an auxiliary tool and alternative to radiography during surgery to reduce radiation damage, but whether it is effective in pediatric patients is not known. In this study we evaluated the utility of US in the treatment of pediatric humeral shaft fractures by closed reduction and fixation with an ESIN.

METHODS

Children who were admitted to our hospital with humeral shaft fractures were retrospectively examined from January 2016 to March 2019. The patients were divided into 2 groups, US (treated by US-guided closed reduction and ESIN fixation) and non-US (treated with the same technique but with intraoperative radiography instead of US). The postoperative functional recovery of the 2 groups was compared.

RESULTS

The study population comprised 28 boys and 17 girls (age range: 4-16 years) with humeral shaft fractures. US significantly reduced radiation exposure during the operation (P = 0.008), and intraoperative US facilitated the detection of nerve and vascular injury and aided surgical planning. There was no difference between the 2 groups in postoperative recovery based on the Constant-Murley shoulder score (CMS).

CONCLUSIONS

These results demonstrate that US-guided closed reduction and ESIN fixation for humeral shaft fractures can limit radiation exposure and help doctors to determine the optimal surgical strategy to avoid radial nerve injury.

Processing parameters involved in the development of texture and tyrosine precipitates in dry-cured ham: Modelisation of texture development

The aim of this study was to quantify the effects of different processing parameters on texture development and the incidence of white film and tyrosine crystals in dry-cured ham. Hams were dry-salted for 0.65, 0.8 or 1.0 days/kg. After drying for 45 days at 5 °C, they were dried at 10, 15 or 20 °C until reaching 33% weight loss and, thereafter, dried at 25 °C until reaching 36 or 40% weight loss. The salting time, drying temperature and target weight loss significantly affected the texture and incidence of white film and tyrosine crystals. A beneficial effect of drying at 20 °C on texture was found, which was especially important for low target weight loss (33%). Besides, hams dried at 20 °C and those with 40% weight loss showed higher incidence of tyrosine crystals. Contour plots and predictive models for texture can be used to define optimal processing parameters.

Instrumental texture analysis on the surface of dry-cured ham to define the end of the process

The end of the elaboration process of dry-cured ham is currently decided by product weight loss and/or by an expert who carries out an evaluation of the tactile texture on the surface. The objective of this study was to define the optimal measurement conditions of an instrumental texture analysis on the surface of the dry-cured ham (ITAS), to define the end of process. 120 dry-cured hams were classified by experts into Hard (appropriate) or Soft (non-appropriate) texture groups and used to perform compression tests using different probes on three anatomical positions. Results showed that the small probe in position 2 gave the most discriminant conditions, providing representative information of the internal texture. Although classification using only weight loss was possible with an accuracy rate of 80.4% or 66.7% depending on the weight loss, the maximum classification accuracy was obtained when using ITAS in combination with weight loss. Further studies at industrial level are needed.

Influence of surfactants and proteins on the properties of wet edible calcium alginate meat coatings

Calcium alginate structures are of interest as replacers for natural casings due to their high availability, biodegradability and low price. The aim of this paper is to study the effect of oil, surfactants and proteins (pea and collagen) on the water transfer, mechanical and microstructural properties of the wet calcium alginate films. The addition of oil and surfactants tended to reduce the water permeance and the weight loss rate, reaching values between those shown by natural and collagen artificial casings. The addition of proteins did not improve the adherence of the films and it decreased the maximum force of the film at puncture test, which was even lower with the presence of the surfactant E475. The TEM micrographs showed that the differences in mechanical properties are mainly related to the differences in the compaction of the microstructure. Wet alginate films with E475 are envisaged as a substitute of natural and collagen artificial casings in the stuffed meat products industry.

Physico-chemical and sensory property changes in almonds of Desmayo Largueta variety during toasting / Cambios en las propiedades físico-químicas y sensoriales de almendras de la variedad Desmayo Largueta durante el tostado

Almonds modify their properties during toasting due to the high temperatures reached. The aim of this study was to evaluate the physico-chemical and sensory property changes in shelled almonds, Desmayo Largueta variety harvested in Tarragona (Spain) and toasted at 200 and 220°C. Internal tem perature and moisture content were determined in almonds during toasting, and fatty acid composi tion, the index of acidity, the peroxide value and the TBA test in almond oil. Sensory analysis of almonds with different toasted intensity was performed. Rancidity was also evaluated by sensory analysis after a year of storage. There was a delay in the internal temperature increase of the almonds between 120 and 130 °C, which coincided with the period of maximum rate of water evaporation. There was no significant variation in the fatty acid composition of the almond oil during toasting. The peroxide value of almond oil had a slight increase from 6 min at 220°C and from 8 min at 200°C, reaching a maximum at 10 min. Rancidity after a year of storage increased up to 8 min and then decreased. The maximum crispiness was obtained at the end of the period of a maximum rate of water evaporation: between 6 and 8 min of toasting at 220 °C and between 8 and 10 min of toasting at 200°C. Over-toasting produced an antioxidant effect in the product, but decreased sweetness and increased bitterness and grittiness.

The effect of panel selection and training on external preference mapping using a low number of samples / Efecto de la selección y entrenamiento de los catadores sobre la cartografía externa de preferencias, utilizando un número reducido de muestras

External preference mapping (PREFMAP) relates the preference data of a group of consumers to a multi-dimensional representation of the stimuli. This representation can be obtained from descriptive sensory data generated by a panel. Four vegetable oil samples were analysed. Three different stimulus spaces were obtained from generalized Procrustes analysis (GPA) of descrip tive sensory data generated by three panels (12 assessors): a non-selected panel, a selected panel and the latter after training. The preference data of each consumer was regressed against the product co-ordinates obtained from each stimulus space using the vector model. The interpreta tion of stimulus space was easier with selected assessors, but in an overall sense the three stim ulus spaces were similar. However, the slight differences between the different sensory spaces produced important differences in the PREFMAP interpretation.

Perfil sensorial de diferentes muestras de nuez (Juglans regia L.)/Sensory profiles of different walnuts (Juglans regia L.)

The nutritional and sensory properties of walnuts (Juglans regia L.) are well known and appreciated by consumers. Despite this, few studies about their basic sensory characteristics or about the effect of agronomic and technological factors on them have been carried out. In this study six different types of walnut were sensorially described, using expert and non-expert assessors, in order to obtain a simple sensory profile which would enable discrimination between the samples studied. The final sensory profile was made up of 18 descriptors. This profile was useful for differentiating and describing samples from several varieties of fruit, two different geographical origins and two different post-harvest treatments. Using only 10 of these descriptors and through discriminant analysis it was possible to classify correctly 100% of the samples into their respective groups. The use of non-expert assessors in the generation of descriptors pointed out the simplicity of the profile, probably allowing for interpretation by non-technical individuals. Selection and interpretation of descriptors was easier and faster than usual as a result of asking the assessors, especially the consumers, to add their own description of the attributes chosen. This also seemed to have affected, in an important way, the number of attributes generated by non-expert assessors.

Actitud de los consumidores frente a los productos cárnicos con un menor contenido en sodio

Food choice and food purchase are complex phenomena influenced not only by the sensorial char acteristics of the product and its price, but also by other factors such as consumer attitudes towards the product. In this study the model of planned behavior of Ajzen was used to measure consumer attitudes towards low salt meat products. A 48-item questionnaire was completed in by 112 consumers representing different sociodemographic levels. The results obtained showed that the beliefs were not completely unitary and only health- and taste-related beliefs significantly improved attitude prediction. Perceived control was the most important aspect in explaining the behavioral intention of the consumers despite its relatively low consistency. Attitude and the subjective norm also had a significant effect on intention. Sociodemographic parameters clearly divided the consumers in several components of the model, the sex of the individuals being the most important aspect. The predictive ability of the model was clearly different depending on whether separation of the consumers by sex and indirect measures of attitude and subjective norm were taken into account. The model of planned behavior proved to be effective in predicting consumers' behavioral intention. However, there are some aspects of this model such as the biased measurement of attitude and consistency of perceived control which need further improvement.

Characterization of Longissimus thoracis, Semitendinosus and Masseter muscles and relationships with technological quality in pigs. 1. Microscopic analysis of muscles

Three porcine muscles (Longissimus thoracis, Semitendinosus, Masseter), known to have large differences in biochemical and histological traits, were fully characterized and the link between muscle structure and quality evaluated. The oxidative Masseter had more pigment, higher content of metmyoglobin, haem iron, protein and collagen, and was redder with higher fibre numbers, fibre circularity, pH and water holding capacity than the glycolytic Longissimus. Fibre type distribution showed predominance of type IIB in Longissimus and Semitendinosus white, type I in Semitendinosus red and IIA in Masseter. Type I fibres were larger than type IIB and IIA in Semitendinosus and Masseter, respectively, but not in the Longissimus, indicating that fibre size is muscle dependent. Muscle redness was positively correlated with type I fibre traits, haem iron and metmyoglobin, and negatively associated with type II fibre characteristics, non-haem iron and oxymyoglobin. Expressible juice had positive correlation with fibre size and negative with fibre number and connective tissue.

The influence of meat pH on mechanical and sensory textural properties of dry-cured ham

The texture of dry-cured ham is one of the most important factors in consumer quality perception of the product. In this study the texture and mechanical properties of normal and Dark, Firm and Dry (DFD) dry-cured hams were studied as well as the relationship between them. DFD hams were softer, pastier, more crumbly and more adhesive than normal ones despite having lower non-protein nitrogen (p<0.05). One of the reasons for the texture characteristics of DFD hams could be the higher level of moisture observed in the Biceps femoris muscle and the high pH value. The mechanical parameters studied also showed clear differences between the two groups of hams, specially in the inner part which was less affected by the drying process. In general the correlation coefficients between sensorial and mechanical parameters were not very high (0.23-0.62). The use of a non-destructive mechanical test, compressing the ham with a spherical probe, makes it possible for DFD hams to be detected in the earlier stages of the manufacturing process and means that technological changes can be made in order to reduce the problematic texture obtained from this kind of meat.

Analysis of raw hams using SELDI-TOF-MS to predict the final quality of dry-cured hams

The relationship between protein profiles of Gluteus medius (GM) muscles of raw hams obtained from 4 pure breed pigs (Duroc, Large White, Landrace, and Piétrain) with the final quality of the Semimembranosus and Biceps femoris muscles of dry-cured hams was investigated. As expected, Duroc hams showed higher levels of marbling and intramuscular fat content than the other breeds. Piétrain hams were the leanest and most conformed, and presented the lowest salt content in dry-cured hams. Even if differences in the quality traits (colour, water activity, texture, composition, intramuscular fat, and marbling) of dry-cured hams were observed among the studied breeds, only small differences in the sensory attributes were detected. Surface-enhanced laser desorption/ionisation time-of-flight mass spectrometry (SELDI-TOF-MS) was used to obtain the soluble protein profiles of GM muscles. Some associations between protein peaks obtained with SELDI-TOF-MS and quality traits, mainly colour (b*) and texture (F(0), Y(2), Y(90)) were observed. Candidate protein markers for the quality of processed dry-cured hams were identified.

Effect of a 10-day ageing at 30°C on the texture of dry-cured hams processed at temperatures up to 18°C in relation to raw meat pH and salting time

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of a 10-day ageing at 30±2°C on the texture of dry-cured hams processed at temperatures up to 18±2°C for 12 months in relation with raw ham pH and salting time. Three pH groups (semimembranosus muscle at 24h post-mortem: Low pH<5.7, Medium pH=5.7⩽pH⩽5.9, and High pH>5.9), three salting times (6d, 10d and 14d) and two ageing temperatures (18°C and 30°C) were investigated. Physicochemical characteristics, instrumental and sensory texture and product sliceability were evaluated on biceps femoris and semimembranosus muscles. Hams with pH(SM24)<5.7 should be avoided in order to reduce the incidence of texture problems in dry-cured ham elaboration. Texture problems are especially important in hams with a reduced salt content that are mechanically sliced (not frozen). A 10-day ageing at 30°C could be useful for reducing the soft texture problems in dry-cured hams processed at temperatures up to 18°C for 12 months without affecting the product flavour.

Sensory characterisation and consumer acceptability of small calibre fermented sausages with 50% substitution of NaCl by mixtures of KCl and potassium lactate

The effect of six mixtures with 50% molar substitution of KCl (0-50%) and potassium lactate (0-50%) as NaCl substitutes in small calibre fermented sausages on some sensory parameters and on the acceptability was studied. Also, the relationship between sensory profile and consumer acceptability using external preference mapping was investigated. The results showed that as the K-lactate substitution increased, pH, sweetness, crumbliness and pastiness also increased, and piquantness, hardness, cohesiveness, ripened flavour, acid taste and saltiness decreased. However, the treatments prepared with a high level of salt substitution by KCl showed scores of sensory attributes similar to those of the control. Consumer segmentation showed differences in acceptability between genders, place of residence, educational level and age group. Consumers rejected fermented sausages with high K-lactate substitution but not those with a high KCl substitution. External preference mapping split consumers up into four clusters with different preference patterns. According to these results and from a sensory point of view, it is possible to achieve a reduction of 50% of NaCl in small calibre fermented sausages and to obtain a product acceptable to most consumers.

Technologies to shorten the drying period of dry-cured meat products

Dry-cured meat products are well-known for their unique sensory characteristics. However, the traditional process is very time consuming. The process can be shortened especially by accelerating the drying period, which is the most time consuming. This paper deals with some technological, safety and sensorial aspects for producing fermented sausages and dry-cured hams when the process time is shortened. Different techniques, such as temperature increase and thickness reduction, and the effects of some ingredients and additives are discussed. A Quick-Dry-Slice process based on a continuous system that combines both convective and vacuum drying could accelerate the drying of slices after the desired pH is reached in fermented sausages. There are safety concerns when processes are shortened, but possible additional hurdles, such as the introduction of bacteriocin-producing starter cultures and high-pressure treatments at the end of the process, could reduce them. Methods to speed up the development of typical colour, texture and flavour and their limitations are also discussed.