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von Hoerschelmann E, Münch J, Gao L, Lücht C, Naik MG, Schmidt D, Pitzinger P, Michel D, Avaniadi P, Schrezenmeier E, Choi M, Halleck F, Budde K. Letermovir Rescue Therapy in Kidney Transplant Recipients with Refractory/Resistant CMV Disease. J Clin Med 2023; 13:100. [PMID: 38202107 PMCID: PMC10780128 DOI: 10.3390/jcm13010100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Revised: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: CMV infections remain a problem after kidney transplantation, particularly if patients are refractory or resistant (r/r) to treatment with valganciclovir (VGCV) or ganciclovir (GCV). (2) Methods: In a single-center retrospective study, kidney transplant recipients (KTR) receiving letermovir (LTV) as rescue therapy for VGCV-/GCV-r/r CMV disease were analyzed regarding CMV history, immunosuppression, and outcomes. (3) Results: Of 201 KTR treated for CMV between 2017 and 2022, 8 patients received LTV following treatment failure with VGCV/GCV. All patients received CMV prophylaxis with VGCV according to the center's protocol, and 7/8 patients had a high-risk (D+/R-) CMV constellation. In seven of eight cases, rising CMV levels occurred during prophylaxis. In seven of eight patients, a mutation in UL97 associated with a decreased response to VGCV/GCV was detected. In four of eight patients, LTV resulted in CMV clearance after 24 ± 10 weeks (16-39 weeks), two of eight patients stabilized at viral loads <2000 cop/mL (6-20 weeks), and two of eight patients developed LTV resistance (range 8-10 weeks). (4) Conclusion: LTV, which is currently evaluated for CMV prophylaxis in kidney transplantation, also shows promising results for the treatment of patients with VGCV/GCV resistance despite the risk of developing LTV resistance. Additional studies are needed to further define its role in the treatment of patients with CMV resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen von Hoerschelmann
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Johannes Münch
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Linde Gao
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian Lücht
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Marcel G. Naik
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Danilo Schmidt
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Paul Pitzinger
- Institute of Virology, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Labor Berlin-Charité-Vivantes GmbH, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Detlef Michel
- Institute of Virology, Universitätsklinikum Ulm, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Parthenopi Avaniadi
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Eva Schrezenmeier
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Mira Choi
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Fabian Halleck
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Klemens Budde
- Department of Nephrology and Medical Intensive Care, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, 10117 Berlin, Germany
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Kribi S, Touré F, Mendes A, Sanou S, Some A, Aminou AM, Belarbi E, Griessel R, Hema A, Kabore F, Pitzinger P, Strydom A, Vietor AC, Traoré K, Zongo A, Anoh EA, Grossegesse M, Hofmann N, Ouangraoua S, Poda A, Kagone T, Schubert G, Eckmanns T, Venter M, Leendertz F, Akoua-Koffi C, Tomczyk S. Multicountry study of SARS-CoV-2 and associated risk factors among healthcare workers in Côte d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso and South Africa. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2022; 117:179-188. [PMID: 36153637 PMCID: PMC9619424 DOI: 10.1093/trstmh/trac089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reports on severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spread across Africa have varied, including among healthcare workers (HCWs). This study assessed the comparative SARS-CoV-2 burden and associated risk factors among HCWs in three African countries. METHODS A multicentre study was conducted at regional healthcare facilities in Côte d'Ivoire (CIV), Burkina Faso (BF) and South Africa (SA) from February to May 2021. HCWs provided blood samples for SARS-CoV-2 serology and nasopharyngeal/oropharyngeal swabs for testing of acute infection by polymerase chain reaction and completed a questionnaire. Factors associated with seropositivity were assessed with logistic regression. RESULTS Among 719 HCWs, SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence was 34.6% (95% confidence interval 31.2 to 38.2), ranging from 19.2% in CIV to 45.7% in BF. A total of 20 of 523 (3.8%) were positive for acute SARS-CoV-2 infection. Female HCWs had higher odds of SARS-CoV-2 seropositivity compared with males, and nursing staff, allied health professionals, non-caregiver personnel and administration had higher odds compared with physicians. HCWs also reported infection prevention and control (IPC) gaps, including 38.7% and 29% having access to respirators and IPC training, respectively, in the last year. CONCLUSIONS This study was a unique comparative HCW SARS-CoV-2 investigation in Africa. Seroprevalence estimates varied, highlighting distinctive population/facility-level factors affecting COVID-19 burden and the importance of established IPC programmes to protect HCWs and patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Kribi
- Corresponding author: Tel: +4915203088440; E-mail: ; Present address: Seestraße 10, Berlin 13353, Germany
| | | | - Adriano Mendes
- Department of Medical Virology, University of Pretoria, Private Bag x 20 Hatfield 0028, South Africa
| | - Soufiane Sanou
- Le Centre Muraz, Ave Mamadou Konate, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Arsène Some
- Le Centre Muraz, Ave Mamadou Konate, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Abdoul M Aminou
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Bouaké, Laboratoire de Bactériologie et Virologie 01, 01 BP 1174 Bouaké, Bouaké, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Essia Belarbi
- Robert Koch Institut P3 Seestraße 10, Berlin 13353, Germany
| | - Rosemary Griessel
- Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Pretoria, Private Bag x 20 Hatfield 0028, South Africa,Department of Medical Microbiology, Tshwane Academic Division, National Health Laboratory Service, Pretoria 0001, South Africa
| | - Arsène Hema
- Centre Hospitalier Sourô Sanou, Service d'épidemiologie, Ave Ponty, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Firmin Kabore
- Le Centre Muraz, Ave Mamadou Konate, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Paul Pitzinger
- Robert Koch Institut P3 Seestraße 10, Berlin 13353, Germany
| | - Amy Strydom
- Department of Medical Virology, University of Pretoria, Private Bag x 20 Hatfield 0028, South Africa
| | | | - Korotimi Traoré
- Le Centre Muraz, Ave Mamadou Konate, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Arsène Zongo
- Le Centre Muraz, Ave Mamadou Konate, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Etilé A Anoh
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Bouaké, Laboratoire de Bactériologie et Virologie 01, 01 BP 1174 Bouaké, Bouaké, Côte d'Ivoire
| | | | | | | | - Armel Poda
- Centre Hospitalier Sourô Sanou, Service d'épidemiologie, Ave Ponty, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Thérèse Kagone
- Le Centre Muraz, Ave Mamadou Konate, Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Grit Schubert
- Robert Koch Institut P3 Seestraße 10, Berlin 13353, Germany
| | - Tim Eckmanns
- Robert Koch Institut P3 Seestraße 10, Berlin 13353, Germany
| | - Marietjie Venter
- Department of Medical Virology, University of Pretoria, Private Bag x 20 Hatfield 0028, South Africa
| | | | - Chantal Akoua-Koffi
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Bouaké, Laboratoire de Bactériologie et Virologie 01, 01 BP 1174 Bouaké, Bouaké, Côte d'Ivoire
| | - Sara Tomczyk
- Robert Koch Institut P3 Seestraße 10, Berlin 13353, Germany
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Mischlinger J, Manego RZ, Mombo-Ngoma G, Ekoka Mbassi D, Hackbarth N, Ekoka Mbassi FA, Davi SD, Kreuzmair R, Veletzky L, Hergeth J, Ndoumba WN, Pitzinger P, Groger M, Matsiegui PB, Adegnika AA, Agnandji ST, Lell B, Ramharter M. Diagnostic performance of capillary and venous blood samples in the detection of Loa loa and Mansonella perstans microfilaraemia using light microscopy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009623. [PMID: 34398886 PMCID: PMC8389422 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2021] [Revised: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Loa loa and Mansonella perstans-the causative agents of loiasis and mansonellosis-are vector-borne filarial parasites co-endemic in sub-Saharan Africa. Diagnosis of both infections is usually established by microscopic analysis of blood samples. It was recently established that the odds for detecting Plasmodium spp. is higher in capillary (CAP) blood than in venous (VEN) blood. In analogy to this finding this analysis evaluates potential differences in microfilaraemia of L. loa and M. perstans in samples of CAP and VEN blood. METHODS Recruitment took place between 2015 and 2019 at the CERMEL in Lambaréné, Gabon and its surrounding villages. Persons of all ages presenting to diagnostic services of the research center around noon were invited to participate in the study. A thick smear of each 10 microliters of CAP and VEN blood was prepared and analysed by a minimum of two independent microscopists. Differences of log2-transformed CAP and VEN microfilaraemia were computed and expressed as percentages. Furthermore, odds ratios for paired data were computed to quantify the odds to detect microfilariae in CAP blood versus in VEN blood. RESULTS A total of 713 participants were recruited among whom 52% were below 30 years of age, 27% between 30-59 years of age and 21% above 60 years of age. Male-female ratio was 0.84. Among 152 participants with microscopically-confirmed L. loa infection median (IQR) microfilaraemia was 3,650 (275-11,100) per milliliter blood in CAP blood and 2,775 (200-8,875) in VEN blood (p<0.0001), while among 102 participants with M. perstans this was 100 (0-200) and 100 (0-200), respectively (p = 0.44). Differences in linear models amount up to an average of +34.5% (95% CI: +11.0 to +63.0) higher L. loa microfilaria quantity in CAP blood versus VEN blood and for M. perstans it was on average higher by +24.8% (95% CI: +0.0 to +60.5). Concordantly, the odds for detection of microfilaraemia in CAP samples versus VEN samples was 1.24 (95% CI: 0.65-2.34) and 1.65 (95% CI: 1.0-2.68) for infections with L. loa and M. perstans, respectively. CONCLUSION This analysis indicates that average levels of microfilaraemia of L. loa are higher in CAP blood samples than in VEN blood samples. This might have implications for treatment algorithms of onchocerciasis and loiasis, in which exact quantification of L. loa microfilaraemia is of importance. Furthermore, the odds for detection of M. perstans microfilariae was higher in CAP than in VEN blood which may pre-dispose CAP blood for detection of M. perstans infection in large epidemiological studies when sampling of large blood quantities is not feasible. No solid evidence for a higher odds of L. loa microfilariae detection in CAP blood was revealed, which might be explained by generally high levels of L. loa microfilaraemia in CAP and VEN blood above the limit of detection of 100 microfilariae/ml. Yet, it cannot be excluded that the study was underpowered to detect a moderate difference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Mischlinger
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine & I. Dep. of Medicine University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Hamburg-Luebeck-Borstel, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Rella Zoleko Manego
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine & I. Dep. of Medicine University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Hamburg-Luebeck-Borstel, Hamburg, Germany
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
| | - Ghyslain Mombo-Ngoma
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine & I. Dep. of Medicine University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Hamburg-Luebeck-Borstel, Hamburg, Germany
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
| | - Dorothea Ekoka Mbassi
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine & I. Dep. of Medicine University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Hamburg-Luebeck-Borstel, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Nina Hackbarth
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine & I. Dep. of Medicine University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Hamburg-Luebeck-Borstel, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Franck-Aurelien Ekoka Mbassi
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine & I. Dep. of Medicine University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
| | - Saskia Dede Davi
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine & I. Dep. of Medicine University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Hamburg-Luebeck-Borstel, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ruth Kreuzmair
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
| | - Luzia Veletzky
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine & I. Dep. of Medicine University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Hamburg-Luebeck-Borstel, Hamburg, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Mirjam Groger
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine & I. Dep. of Medicine University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Hamburg-Luebeck-Borstel, Hamburg, Germany
| | | | - Ayôla Akim Adegnika
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Tübingen, Germany
| | - Selidji Todagbe Agnandji
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Bertrand Lell
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- Department of Medicine I, Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Ramharter
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine & I. Dep. of Medicine University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Hamburg-Luebeck-Borstel, Hamburg, Germany
- * E-mail:
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4
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Mischlinger J, Pitzinger P, Veletzky L, Groger M, Zoleko-Manego R, Adegnika AA, Agnandji ST, Lell B, Kremsner PG, Tannich E, Mombo-Ngoma G, Mordmüller B, Ramharter M. Use of Capillary Blood Samples Leads to Higher Parasitemia Estimates and Higher Diagnostic Sensitivity of Microscopic and Molecular Diagnostics of Malaria Than Venous Blood Samples. J Infect Dis 2019; 218:1296-1305. [PMID: 29800345 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiy319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Diagnosis of malaria is usually based on samples of peripheral blood. However, it is unclear whether capillary (CAP) or venous (VEN) blood samples provide better diagnostic performance. Quantitative differences of parasitemia between CAP and VEN blood and diagnostic performance characteristics were investigated. Methods Patients were recruited between September 2015 and February 2016 in Gabon. Light microscopy and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) measured parasitemia of paired CAP and VEN samples. CAP and VEN performance characteristics using microscopy were evaluated against a qPCR gold standard. Results Microscopy revealed a median parasitemia of 495/μL in CAP and 429/μL in VEN samples, manifesting in a 16.6% (P = .04) higher CAP parasitemia compared with VEN parasitemia. Concordantly, in qPCR -0.278 (P = .006) cycles were required for signal detection in CAP samples. CAP sensitivity of microscopy relative to the gold standard was 81.5% vs VEN sensitivity of 73.4%, while specificities were 91%. CAP and VEN sensitivities dropped to 63.3% and 45.9%, respectively, for a subpopulation of low-level parasitemias, whereas specificities were 92%. Conclusions CAP sampling leads to higher parasitemias compared to VEN sampling and improves diagnostic sensitivity. These findings may have important implications for routine diagnostics, research, and elimination campaigns of malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Mischlinger
- Department of Medicine I, Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Austria.,Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universität Tübingen, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Germany.,Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Germany.,I Department of Medicine University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany
| | - Paul Pitzinger
- Department of Medicine I, Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Austria.,Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Gabon
| | - Luzia Veletzky
- Department of Medicine I, Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Austria.,Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Gabon.,Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Germany.,I Department of Medicine University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany
| | - Mirjam Groger
- Department of Medicine I, Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Austria.,Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Gabon.,Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Germany.,I Department of Medicine University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany
| | - Rella Zoleko-Manego
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universität Tübingen, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Germany.,Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Germany.,I Department of Medicine University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany
| | - Ayola A Adegnika
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universität Tübingen, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Germany
| | - Selidji T Agnandji
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universität Tübingen, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Germany
| | - Bertrand Lell
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universität Tübingen, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Germany
| | - Peter G Kremsner
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universität Tübingen, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Germany
| | - Egbert Tannich
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Arbovirus and Hemorrhagic Fever Reference and Research, Germany.,German Centre for Infection Research, partner site Hamburg-Luebeck-Borstel, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ghyslain Mombo-Ngoma
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universität Tübingen, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Germany.,Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Germany.,I Department of Medicine University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany.,Université des Sciences de la Santé Gabon, Département de Parasitology, Malaria Clinical and Operational Research Unit, Melen Hospital, Libreville, Gabon
| | - Benjamin Mordmüller
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universität Tübingen, Germany.,German Center for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Germany
| | - Michael Ramharter
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Germany.,I Department of Medicine University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Germany.,German Centre for Infection Research, partner site Hamburg-Luebeck-Borstel, Hamburg, Germany
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Kühne V, Rezaei Z, Pitzinger P, Büscher P. Systematic review on antigens for serodiagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis, with a focus on East Africa. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019; 13:e0007658. [PMID: 31415564 PMCID: PMC6711545 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Revised: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Accurate and accessible diagnosis is key for the control of visceral leishmaniasis (VL). Yet, current diagnostic tests for VL have severe limitations: they are invasive or not suitable as point of care (POC) test or their performance is suboptimal in East Africa. We analysed the antigens in the VL serodiagnostics development pipeline to identify shortcomings and to propose strategies in the development of an alternative POC test for VL in East Africa. Objectives The objective of this study was to identify and to analyse all antigens for VL serodiagnosis that have been published before 2018 in order to identify candidates and gaps in the pipeline for a new POC test in East Africa. Methods A systematic literature search was performed on PubMed for original research articles on Leishmania-specific antigens for antibody detection of VL in humans. From each article, the following information was extracted: the antigen name, test format and characteristics, its reported sensitivity and specificity and study cohort specifications. Results One hundred and seven articles containing information about 96 tests based on 89 different antigens were included in this study. Eighty six of these tests, comprising 80 antigens, were evaluated in phase I and II studies only. Only 20 antigens, all of which are native, contain a carbohydrate and/or lipid moiety. Twenty-four antigens, of which 7 are non-native, are composed of antigen mixtures. Nineteen tests, comprising 18 antigens, have been evaluated on East African specimens, of which only 2 (rK28 based immunochromatographic test and intact promastigote based indirect fluorescent antibody technique) consistently showed sensitivities above 94 and specificities above 97% in a phase III study and one in a phase II study (dot blot with SLA). Only rK28 is a non-native mixture of antigens which we consider suitable for further evaluation and implementation. Conclusions The development pipeline for an alternative serodiagnostic test for VL is almost empty. Most antigens are not sufficiently evaluated. Non-protein antigens and antigen mixtures are being neglected. We propose to expand the evaluation of existing antigen candidates and to investigate the diagnostic potential of defined non-native carbohydrate and lipid antigens for VL serodiagnosis in East Africa. Visceral leishmaniasis is a potentially fatal disease that affects more than 20 000 people every year. Its diagnosis is difficult since the clinical symptoms are not specific and the existing diagnostic tests are not useful in limited resource countries or they a not accurate enough in East Africa. In this review we performed a systematic search of the published literature to analyse the potential candidate antigens in the pipeline for a new antibody detection test in East Africa. We found 96 tests based on 89 antigens. Eighty six of these tests were evaluated in a study design that is insufficient (phase I and II) to make conclusions on their performance in clinical practice. We found that the candidate antigens either lacked carbohydrate or lipid structures or are based on single antigens as opposed to mixtures or are extracted from the causative parasite itself, making them expensive and prone to variations. Considering that the most widely used diagnostic test does not detect all cases of visceral leishmaniasis in East Africa, we analysed how many of the candidate antigens were tested on East African specimens: We found that only 2 tests (rK28 based immunochromatographic test and the intact promastigote based indirect fluorescent antibody technique) that were tested in a phase III study and only one (dot blot with SLA) that was tested in a phase II study performed well according to our criteria. Due to the antigen characteristics we consider only the rK28 based test as suitable for further evaluation and implementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vera Kühne
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
- * E-mail:
| | - Zahra Rezaei
- Professor Alborzi Clinical Microbiology Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Paul Pitzinger
- Institute of Medical Microbiology, University Medical Center Göttingen, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Philippe Büscher
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
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6
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Mischlinger J, Pitzinger P, Veletzky L, Groger M, Zoleko-Manego R, Adegnika AA, Agnandji ST, Lell B, Kremsner PG, Mombo-Ngoma G, Mordmüller B, Ramharter M. Validity and reliability of methods to microscopically detect and quantify malaria parasitaemia. Trop Med Int Health 2018; 23:980-991. [PMID: 29956431 DOI: 10.1111/tmi.13124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The recommended microscopy method by WHO to quantify malaria parasitaemia yields inaccurate results when individual leucocyte (WBC) counts deviate from 8000 leucocytes/μl. A method avoiding WBC count assumptions is the Lambaréné method (LAMBA). Thus, this study compared validity and reliability of the LAMBA and the WHO method. METHODS Three methods for counting parasitaemia were applied in parallel in a blinded assessment: the LAMBA, the WHO method using a standard factor of 8000 leucocytes/μl ['simple WHO method' (sWHO)] and the WHO method using measured WBC counts ['accurate WHO method' (aWHO)]. Validity was assessed by comparing LAMBA and sWHO to the gold standard measurement of aWHO. Reliability was ascertained by computation of intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs). RESULTS 787 malaria-positive thick smears were analysed. Parasitaemia as determined by LAMBA and sWHO increasingly deviated from aWHO the more patients' WBCs diverged from 8000/μl. Equations of linear regression models assessing method deviation in percent from gold standard as function of WBC count were y = -0.00608x (95% CI -0.00693 to -0.00524) + 47.8 for LAMBA and y = -0.0125x (95% CI -0.01253 to -0.01247) + 100.1 for sWHO. Comparison of regression slopes showed that the deviation was twice as high for sWHO as for LAMBA (P < 0.001). ICCs were excellent (>90%) for both methods. CONCLUSIONS The LAMBA has higher validity than the sWHO and may therefore be preferable in resource-limited settings without access to routine WBC-evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Mischlinger
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Department of Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.,Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, German Centre for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine & I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Paul Pitzinger
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Department of Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.,Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
| | - Luzia Veletzky
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Department of Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.,Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon.,Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine & I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Mirjam Groger
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Department of Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.,Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon.,Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine & I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Rella Zoleko-Manego
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, German Centre for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine & I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ayola A Adegnika
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, German Centre for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Selidji T Agnandji
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, German Centre for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Bertrand Lell
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, German Centre for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Peter G Kremsner
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, German Centre for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Ghyslain Mombo-Ngoma
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, German Centre for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine & I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.,Malaria Clinical and Operational Research Unit, Melen Hospital, Département de Parasitology, Université des Sciences de la Santé Gabon, Libreville, Gabon
| | - Benjamin Mordmüller
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, German Centre for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Universität Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Michael Ramharter
- Department of Tropical Medicine, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine & I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany.,German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Hamburg-Luebeck-Borstel, Hamburg, Germany
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7
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Mischlinger J, Veletzky L, Tazemda-Kuitsouc GB, Pitzinger P, Matsegui PB, Gmeiner M, Lagler H, Gebru T, Held J, Mordmüller B, Ramharter M. Behavioural and clinical predictors for Loiasis. J Glob Health 2018; 8:010413. [PMID: 29497506 PMCID: PMC5827628 DOI: 10.7189/jogh.08.010413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Loiasis is a vector-borne disease in Central and West Africa. While there is still uncertainty to what extent loiasis is responsible for population morbidity, individuals having both loiasis and onchocerciasis have a high risk of fatal encephalopathy when treatment (ie, ivermectin) for onchocerciasis is given. Therefore it is current policy that communities of high loiasis-burden are excluded from mass drug administration programmes of ivermectin. To address this treatment gap we present diagnostic scores, based on clinical and behavioural predictors that may help to rapidly identify sub-groups with loiasis within high-burden communities. Methods A cross-sectional survey was performed in the province of la Ngounie, Gabon between December 2015 and Februrary 2016 and 947 participants of all ages were recruited. Clinical parameters and behavioural exposure factors were ascertained by questionnaire-based interviews. Parasitological analysis of blood samples was performed for L. loa detection. Diagnostic scores consisting of clinical and behavioural factors were modelled to predict loiasis in sub-groups residing in endemic regions. Results Increasing sylvan exposure was identified as important risk factor for loiasis with adjusted odds ratios of 5.1 (95% confidence interval CI 2.6-9.9) for occasional forest exposure, 11.1 (95% CI 5.4-22.6) for frequent forest exposure and 25.7 (95% CI 12.5-52.9) for intensive forest exposure. Individuals with loiasis were 7.7 (95% CI 5.4-11.0) times more likely to report recurrent pruritus than those without loiasis. Reporting of regular daily exposure to the deep rain forest and recurrent pruritus was 9-fold (positive likelihood ratio 9.18; 95% CI: 6.39-13.18) more prevalent in individuals with loiasis than in controls. Concordantly, the absence of regular weekly forest exposure was associated with extremely low disease-likelihood (negative likelihood ratio 0.09; 95% CI 0.05-0.16). Conclusions These composite scores may serve as a simple tool to rapidly identify both those most and those least at risk of disease and may simplify loiasis control activities as well as screening procedures for studies on loiasis. Further, they may aid policy-makers to tailor the delivery of ivermectin mass drug administration for onchocerciasis control programmes more effectively and safely in regions of high loiasis-burden.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Mischlinger
- Department of Medicine I, Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.,Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universität Tübingen, and German Center for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Bernhard Nocht Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine and University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Luzia Veletzky
- Department of Medicine I, Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.,Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon.,Bernhard Nocht Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine and University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | | | - Paul Pitzinger
- Department of Medicine I, Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.,Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
| | - Pierre B Matsegui
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universität Tübingen, and German Center for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Centre de Recherches Médicales de la Ngounié, Fougamou, Gabon
| | - Markus Gmeiner
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universität Tübingen, and German Center for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Heimo Lagler
- Department of Medicine I, Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Tamirat Gebru
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universität Tübingen, and German Center for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Jana Held
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universität Tübingen, and German Center for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Benjamin Mordmüller
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universität Tübingen, and German Center for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Michael Ramharter
- Department of Medicine I, Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.,Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon.,Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universität Tübingen, and German Center for Infection Research, partner site Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Bernhard Nocht Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine and University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
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8
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Agnandji ST, Fernandes JF, Bache EB, Obiang Mba RM, Brosnahan JS, Kabwende L, Pitzinger P, Staarink P, Massinga-Loembe M, Krähling V, Biedenkopf N, Fehling SK, Strecker T, Clark DJ, Staines HM, Hooper JW, Silvera P, Moorthy V, Kieny MP, Adegnika AA, Grobusch MP, Becker S, Ramharter M, Mordmüller B, Lell B, Krishna S, Kremsner PG. Safety and immunogenicity of rVSVΔG-ZEBOV-GP Ebola vaccine in adults and children in Lambaréné, Gabon: A phase I randomised trial. PLoS Med 2017; 14:e1002402. [PMID: 28985239 PMCID: PMC5630143 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The rVSVΔG-ZEBOV-GP vaccine prevented Ebola virus disease when used at 2 × 107 plaque-forming units (PFU) in a trial in Guinea. This study provides further safety and immunogenicity data. METHODS AND FINDINGS A randomised, open-label phase I trial in Lambaréné, Gabon, studied 5 single intramuscular vaccine doses of 3 × 103, 3 × 104, 3 × 105, 3 × 106, or 2 × 107 PFU in 115 adults and a dose of 2 × 107 PFU in 20 adolescents and 20 children. The primary objective was safety and tolerability 28 days post-injection. Immunogenicity, viraemia, and shedding post-vaccination were evaluated as secondary objectives. In adults, mild-to-moderate adverse events were frequent, but there were no serious or severe adverse events related to vaccination. Before vaccination, Zaire Ebola virus (ZEBOV)-glycoprotein (GP)-specific and ZEBOV antibodies were detected in 11% and 27% of adults, respectively. In adults, 74%-100% of individuals who received a dose 3 × 104, 3 × 105, 3 × 106, or 2 × 107 PFU had a ≥4.0-fold increase in geometric mean titres (GMTs) of ZEBOV-GP-specific antibodies at day 28, reaching GMTs of 489 (95% CI: 264-908), 556 (95% CI: 280-1,101), 1,245 (95% CI: 899-1,724), and 1,503 (95% CI: 931-2,426), respectively. Twenty-two percent of adults had a ≥4-fold increase of ZEBOV antibodies, with GMTs at day 28 of 1,015 (647-1,591), 1,887 (1,154-3,085), 1,445 (1,013-2,062), and 3,958 (2,249-6,967) for the same doses, respectively. These antibodies persisted up to day 180 for doses ≥3 × 105 PFU. Adults with antibodies before vaccination had higher GMTs throughout. Neutralising antibodies were detected in more than 50% of participants at doses ≥3 × 105 PFU. As in adults, no serious or severe adverse events related to vaccine occurred in adolescents or children. At day 2, vaccine RNA titres were higher for adolescents and children than adults. At day 7, 78% of adolescents and 35% of children had recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus RNA detectable in saliva. The vaccine induced high GMTs of ZEBOV-GP-specific antibodies at day 28 in adolescents, 1,428 (95% CI: 1,025-1,989), and children, 1,620 (95% CI: 806-3,259), and in both groups antibody titres increased up to day 180. The absence of a control group, lack of stratification for baseline antibody status, and imbalances in male/female ratio are the main limitations of this study. CONCLUSIONS Our data confirm the acceptable safety and immunogenicity profile of the 2 × 107 PFU dose in adults and support consideration of lower doses for paediatric populations and those who request boosting. TRIAL REGISTRATION Pan African Clinical Trials Registry PACTR201411000919191.
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Affiliation(s)
- Selidji T. Agnandji
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF) partner sites Universitätsklinikum Tübingen and Gießen-Marburg-Langen, Germany
| | - José F. Fernandes
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | | | | | - Jessica S. Brosnahan
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF) partner sites Universitätsklinikum Tübingen and Gießen-Marburg-Langen, Germany
| | - Lumeka Kabwende
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
| | - Paul Pitzinger
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine and University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Pieter Staarink
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- Center of Tropical Medicine and Travel Medicine, Department of Infectious Diseases, Division of Internal Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Verena Krähling
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF) partner sites Universitätsklinikum Tübingen and Gießen-Marburg-Langen, Germany
- Institute for Virology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Nadine Biedenkopf
- Institute for Virology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | | | - Thomas Strecker
- Institute for Virology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - David J. Clark
- Centre for Diagnostics and Antimicrobial Resistance, Institute for Infection & Immunity, St. George’s, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Henry M. Staines
- Centre for Diagnostics and Antimicrobial Resistance, Institute for Infection & Immunity, St. George’s, University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jay W. Hooper
- US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Peter Silvera
- US Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases, Fort Detrick, Maryland, United States of America
| | | | | | - Akim A. Adegnika
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF) partner sites Universitätsklinikum Tübingen and Gießen-Marburg-Langen, Germany
- Department of Parasitology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Martin P. Grobusch
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Center of Tropical Medicine and Travel Medicine, Department of Infectious Diseases, Division of Internal Medicine, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Stephan Becker
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF) partner sites Universitätsklinikum Tübingen and Gießen-Marburg-Langen, Germany
- Institute for Virology, Philipps-Universität Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Michael Ramharter
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Bernhard Nocht Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine and University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Benjamin Mordmüller
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF) partner sites Universitätsklinikum Tübingen and Gießen-Marburg-Langen, Germany
| | - Bertrand Lell
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF) partner sites Universitätsklinikum Tübingen and Gießen-Marburg-Langen, Germany
| | | | - Sanjeev Krishna
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Centre for Diagnostics and Antimicrobial Resistance, Institute for Infection & Immunity, St. George’s, University of London, London, United Kingdom
- St. George’s University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom
- * E-mail: (SK); (PGK)
| | - Peter G. Kremsner
- Centre de Recherches Médicales de Lambaréné, Lambaréné, Gabon
- Institut für Tropenmedizin, Universitätsklinikum Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF) partner sites Universitätsklinikum Tübingen and Gießen-Marburg-Langen, Germany
- * E-mail: (SK); (PGK)
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