The longest year ever: Emotions and time perception interact to predict how frequently individuals engage in COVID-19 avoidance behaviors

Affective states alter the perception of how quickly time is passing. However, previous studies have not examined the independent and interactive effects of emotion and time perception on behavioral outcomes. The current study sought to better understand the relationships between affect, time perception, and reported engagement in COVID-19 pathogen avoidance behaviors (e.g., social distancing, wearing a mask) over 1 year. The study sample was comprised of American adults (n = 1,000) recruited using Prolific. The majority of participants in the final sample (50.1% male, 46.8% female, 3.1% nonbinary/other) identified as White/Caucasian (78.9%) or Black/African American (11.9%). The average age in the sample was 34.4 years (SD = 11.3). Consistent with study hypotheses, approach-motivated affective states (happiness) were associated with time flying, and avoidance-motivated affective states (nervous, lack of control) were associated with time dragging. Moderation analyses revealed that reports of greater avoidance-motivated affect and time dragging, and reports of greater approach-motivated affect and time flying interacted to predict more frequent engagement in pathogen avoidance behaviors. These results contribute to the existing literature describing the affective and behavioral effects of the COVID-19 pandemic by suggesting both approach- and avoidance-motivated affective states have important implications for engagement in pathogen avoidance behaviors. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Using Wearable Passive Sensing to Predict Binge Eating in Response to Negative Affect Among Individuals With Transdiagnostic Binge Eating: Protocol for an Observational Study

BACKGROUND

Binge eating (BE), characterized by eating a large amount of food accompanied by a sense of loss of control over eating, is a public health crisis. Negative affect is a well-established antecedent for BE. The affect regulation model of BE posits that elevated negative affect increases momentary risk for BE, as engaging in BE alleviates negative affect and reinforces the behavior. The eating disorder field's capacity to identify moments of elevated negative affect, and thus BE risk, has exclusively relied on ecological momentary assessment (EMA). EMA involves the completion of surveys in real time on one's smartphone to report behavioral, cognitive, and emotional symptoms throughout the day. Although EMA provides ecologically valid information, EMA surveys are often delivered only 5-6 times per day, involve self-report of affect intensity only, and are unable to assess affect-related physiological arousal. Wearable, psychophysiological sensors that measure markers of affect arousal including heart rate, heart rate variability, and electrodermal activity may augment EMA surveys to improve accurate real-time prediction of BE. These sensors can objectively and continuously measure biomarkers of nervous system arousal that coincide with affect, thus allowing them to measure affective trajectories on a continuous timescale, detect changes in negative affect before the individual is consciously aware of them, and reduce user burden to improve data completeness. However, it is unknown whether sensor features can distinguish between positive and negative affect states, given that physiological arousal may occur during both negative and positive affect states.

OBJECTIVE

The aims of this study are (1) to test the hypothesis that sensor features will distinguish positive and negative affect states in individuals with BE with >60% accuracy and (2) test the hypothesis that a machine learning algorithm using sensor data and EMA-reported negative affect to predict the occurrence of BE will predict BE with greater accuracy than an algorithm using EMA-reported negative affect alone.

METHODS

This study will recruit 30 individuals with BE who will wear Fitbit Sense 2 wristbands to passively measure heart rate and electrodermal activity and report affect and BE on EMA surveys for 4 weeks. Machine learning algorithms will be developed using sensor data to distinguish instances of high positive and high negative affect (aim 1) and to predict engagement in BE (aim 2).

RESULTS

This project will be funded from November 2022 to October 2024. Recruitment efforts will be conducted from January 2023 through March 2024. Data collection is anticipated to be completed in May 2024.

CONCLUSIONS

This study is anticipated to provide new insight into the relationship between negative affect and BE by integrating wearable sensor data to measure affective arousal. The findings from this study may set the stage for future development of more effective digital ecological momentary interventions for BE.

INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/47098.

Feedback Related Negativity Amplitude is Greatest Following Deceptive Feedback in Autistic Adolescents

The purpose of this study is to investigate if feedback related negativity (FRN) can capture instantaneous elevated emotional reactivity in autistic adolescents. A measurement of elevated reactivity could allow clinicians to better support autistic individuals without the need for self-reporting or verbal conveyance. The study investigated reactivity in 46 autistic adolescents (ages 12-21 years) completing the Affective Posner Task which utilizes deceptive feedback to elicit distress presented as frustration. The FRN event-related potential (ERP) served as an instantaneous quantitative neural measurement of emotional reactivity. We compared deceptive and distressing feedback to both truthful but distressing feedback and truthful and non-distressing feedback using the FRN, response times in the successive trial, and Emotion Dysregulation Inventory (EDI) reactivity scores. Results revealed that FRN values were most negative to deceptive feedback as compared to truthful non-distressing feedback. Furthermore, distressing feedback led to faster response times in the successive trial on average. Lastly, participants with higher EDI reactivity scores had more negative FRN values for non-distressing truthful feedback compared to participants with lower reactivity scores. The FRN amplitude showed changes based on both frustration and reactivity. The findings of this investigation support using the FRN to better understand emotion regulation processes for autistic adolescents in future work. Furthermore, the change in FRN based on reactivity suggests the possible need to subgroup autistic adolescents based on reactivity and adjust interventions accordingly.

Motivated for movement: Beta activation over the motor cortex resulting from intrinsic and extrinsic motivators

Past work on motivation has primarily studied dichotomous distinctions of motivation (e.g., extrinsic or intrinsic). However, focusing on the overall motivational intensity may be better at accentuating the unique differences within and between varying motivators as it pertains to the impetus to act. Specifically, motivational intensity influences neural patterns of beta band frequency (13-30 Hz) as measured by electroencephalography (EEG) that enable motor-action preparation, a neural correlate of motivated movement. The primary aim of across three experiments was to investigate neural motor-action preparation to modified flanker tasks within achievement (Experiment 1), autonomous (Experiment 2), and extrinsic vs. intrinsic (Experiment 3) motivational contexts. Experiment 1 revealed greater motor-action preparation for challenging trial cues and did not differ in behavioral attentional and performance measures across both trial types. Experiment 2 revealed no significant difference in motor-action preparation, did not differ in behavioral attentional narrowing and had worse behavioral performance in high autonomy relative to low autonomy trials. Experiment 3 revealed greater motor-action preparation for challenging trial cues, did not differ in behavioral attentional narrowing and had a faster performance for reward trials relative to high autonomy trials. These findings suggest motivators of the same category (i.e., intrinsic) may differ in motivational strength, as suggested by a neurophysiological measure of immediate motivated movement planning.

How Does Emotion Influence Time Perception? A Review of Evidence Linking Emotional Motivation and Time Processing

Emotions have a strong influence on how we experience time passing. The body of research investigating the role of emotion on time perception has steadily increased in the past twenty years. Several affective mechanisms have been proposed to influence the passing of time. The current review focuses on how three dimensions of affect-valence, arousal, and motivation-are related to time perception. The valence-based model of time perception predicts that all positive affects hasten the perception of time and all negative affects slow the perception of time. Arousal is thought to intensify the effects of the influence of valence on time perception. In much of this past work, motivational direction has been confounded with valence, whereas motivational intensity has been confounded with arousal. Research investigating the role of motivation in time perception has found that approach-motivated positive and negative affects hasten the perception of time, but withdrawal-motivated affects slow the perception of time. Perceiving time passing quickly while experiencing approach-motivated states may provide significant advantages related to goal pursuit. In contrast, perceiving time passing slowly while experiencing withdrawal-motivated states may increase avoidance actions. Below, we review evidence supporting that approach motivation hastens the passing of time, whereas withdrawal motivation slows the passing of time. These results suggest that motivational direction, rather than affective valence and arousal, drive emotional changes in time perception.

Quantitative EEG Changes in Youth With ASD Following Brief Mindfulness Meditation Exercise

Mindfulness has growing empirical support for improving emotion regulation in individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Mindfulness is cultivated through meditation practices. Assessing the role of mindfulness in improving emotion regulation is challenging given the reliance on self-report tools. Electroencephalography (EEG) has successfully quantified neural responses to emotional arousal and meditation in other populations, making it ideal to objectively measure neural responses before and after mindfulness (MF) practice among individuals with ASD. We performed an EEG-based analysis during a resting state paradigm in 35 youth with ASD. Specifically, we developed a machine learning classifier and a feature and channel selection approach that separates resting states preceding (Pre-MF) and following (Post-MF) a mindfulness meditation exercise within participants. Across individuals, frontal and temporal channels were most informative. Total power in the beta band (16-30 Hz), Total power (4-30 Hz), relative power in alpha band (8-12 Hz) were the most informative EEG features. A classifier using a non-linear combination of selected EEG features from selected channel locations separated Pre-MF and Post-MF resting states with an average accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity of 80.76%, 78.24%, and 82.14% respectively. Finally, we validated that separation between Pre-MF and Post-MF is due to the MF prime rather than linear-temporal drift. This work underscores machine learning as a critical tool for separating distinct resting states within youth with ASD and will enable better classification of underlying neural responses following brief MF meditation.

Motor Preparation and Execution for Performance Difficulty: Centroparietal Beta Activation during the Effort Expenditure for Rewards Task as a Function of Motivation

Debate exists as to the effects of anxiety in performance-based studies. However, no studies have examined the influence of motivation both in preparation of a motor movement and during movement performance. The present study measured beta activation in preparation for and during execution of the effort expenditure for rewards task (EEfRT), a button-pressing task consisting of easy and hard trials. Results indicated that motor preparation (i.e., reduced beta activation) was greater in preparation for hard trials than for easy trials. Additionally, motor preparation decreased (i.e., beta activation increased) over the course of hard trial execution. These results suggest that motor preparation is enhanced prior to more challenging tasks but that motor preparation declines as participants become closer to completing their goal in each challenging trial. These results provide insight into how beta activation facilitates effort expenditure for motor tasks varying in difficulty and motivation. The impact of these results on models of anxiety and performance is discussed.

Individual differences in motivation and impulsivity link resting frontal alpha asymmetry and motor beta activation

Previous research has linked neural correlates with motivational traits and measures of impulsivity. However, few previous studies have investigated whether individual differences in motivation and impulsivity moderate the relationship between these disparate neural activity patterns. In a sample of 118 young adults, we used Electroencephalography (EEG) to examine whether behavioral activation and inhibition systems (BIS/BAS) and impulsivity facets (negative urgency, lack of perseverance), moderate the relationship between beta power and resting frontal alpha asymmetry. Regression analyses revealed a novel relationship between lesser beta power and greater left frontal alpha asymmetry (LFA). Moderation analyses suggest this relationship may strengthen as BIS/BAS levels increase, and trait impulsivity levels decrease from the mean. These results are among the first revealing a relationship between two widely investigated neural activity patterns of motivation and provide some indication individual differences moderate this relationship. The limitations of these findings and need for future research are discussed.

Frontal Asymmetry in an approach-avoidance conflict paradigm

The frontal cortex appears to be asymmetrically related to approach motivation, avoidance motivation, and motivational conflict. Much past work has investigated approach and avoidance motivation, but little work has investigated frontal asymmetry in the face of motivational conflict in part because of the inherent conflict between avoidance motivation and motivational conflict. The current study sought to disentangle the existing confound between avoidance motivation and motivational conflict. In the study, participants selected the likelihood of viewing negative (vs. positive) images for zero reward points (avoidance only condition), or negative (vs. positive) images for the chance to win reward points (approach-avoidance conflict conditions). Participants exhibited greater relative right frontal asymmetry while making percent likelihood selections in the approach-avoidance conflict conditions relative to the avoidance only conditions. Additionally, participants exhibited greater relative right frontal asymmetry while viewing disgust images during trials with the greatest approach-avoidance conflict relative to trials with the lowest approach-avoidance conflict. Together, these results suggest that motivational conflict, and not avoidance motivation, is associated with greater relative right frontal activity.

Revenge is sweet: Investigation of the effects of Approach-Motivated anger on the RewP in the motivated anger delay (MAD) paradigm

Past research has found that neural activity associated with feedback processing is enhanced by positive approach-motivated states. However, no past work has examined how reward processing changes in the context of revenge. Using a novel aggression paradigm, we sought to explore the influence of approach-motivated anger on neural responses to feedback indicating the opportunity to seek revenge against an offending opponent by examining the reward positivity (RewP), an event-related potential indexing performance feedback. In Experiment 1, after receiving insulting feedback from an opponent, participants played a reaction time game with three trial types: revenge trials, aggravation trials, and no-consequence trials. Results revealed that RewP amplitudes were larger to revenge trial win feedback than no-consequence trial win feedback or revenge trial loss feedback. RewP amplitudes were larger to both aggravation trial win and loss feedback than on no-consequence trials. Experiment 2 examined the influence of approach-motivated anger during the acquisition of rewards on the RewP without the possibility of retribution from the offending individual. Participants played a reaction time game similar to Experiment 1, except instead of giving or receiving noise blasts, participants could win money from the insulter (revenge trials) or a neutral-party (e.g., bank). Results indicated that revenge wins elicited larger RewP amplitudes than bank wins. These results suggest that anger enhances revenge-related RewP amplitudes to obtaining revenge opportunities and further aggravation wins or losses. Anger appears to enhance the pleasurable feelings of revenge.

Frontal asymmetry: A novel biomarker for physical activity and sedentary behavior

Past research has demonstrated that regular physical activity provides a myriad of physical, mental, and emotional benefits. The decision of whether to partake in physical activity (PA) or remain sedentary appears to be partially influenced by motivational and emotional systems. Research suggests left frontal alpha asymmetry is a neural marker of approach motivation. However, studies have not explored whether habitual levels of PA and sedentary behavior relate to this neurophysiological signal. Across two studies, individuals completed measures of habitual PA and sedentary behavior using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Short Form. Then, resting electroencephalography activity was recorded. Results of Study 1 (N = 32, 72% women) indicated that more time spent sitting on both weekdays and weekend days were associated with less left frontal asymmetry (r = -.45, p = .027, and r = -.55, p = .005, respectively). Study 2 recruited a larger sample (N = 96, 31% women) and investigated moderators. Greater levels of moderate (r = .27) and total (r = .29) PA were associated with greater left frontal asymmetry (ps < .05), and the relationship between sedentary behavior and less left frontal asymmetry was moderated by sex (weekday: β = .62, p = .011; weekend day: β = .41, p = .034). Our results suggest that left frontal asymmetry may be a novel neurophysiological marker for PA and sedentary behavior.

An EEG Study of Children With and Without ADHD Symptoms: Between-Group Differences and Associations With Sluggish Cognitive Tempo Symptoms

Objective: We examined differences between those with and without ADHD symptoms on resting state electroencephalography (EEG) indices and unique relations with sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) symptoms. Method: Children with ADHD symptoms (n = 21) and healthy controls (n = 20) were assessed using rating scales, a neuropsychological task measuring sustained attention and inhibitory control, and EEG activity during a resting state period. Between-group, correlational, and regression analyses were conducted. Results: Large differences (particularly for theta/beta ratio in frontal and frontocentral regions) were found on EEG measures between those with and without ADHD symptoms. While ADHD and SCT symptoms both related to sustained attention on a computerized task, only ADHD symptoms were related to frontal and frontocentral theta/beta ratio. Conclusion: Results support the conclusion that ADHD symptoms are strongly associated with theta/beta ratio in frontal and frontocentral regions. Future studies should explore unique neurophysiological correlates of SCT.

Neural and Attentional Correlates of Intrinsic Motivation Resulting from Social Performance Expectancy

Some models of motivation distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. While past work has examined the neural and cognitive correlates of extrinsic motivation, research on intrinsic motivation has relied primarily on behavioral measures of performance and learning. In particular, no past work has examined the neural and cognitive correlates of social performance expectancy, which is linked to intrinsic motivation. The current study manipulated expectancy of difficult (vs. easy) trials on a cued flanker task and assessed attentional scope and performance. EEG was used to examine motor-action preparation as measured by suppression of beta band activity over the motor cortex and feedback processing as measured by the Reward Positivity (RewP). Results revealed expectancy of difficult (vs. easy) trials narrowed attentional scope, reduced beta activity over the motor cortex, and enhanced RewP amplitudes to win feedback. These findings suggest that enhancing intrinsic motivation through expectancies of positive social comparison engages similar neural and cognitive correlates as extrinsic motivators high in motivational intensity.

Regulatory control and impulsivity relate to resting frontal activity

Gray’s Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) asserts three core personality systems: the behavioral approach system (BAS), the fight-flight-freeze system (FFFS) and the revised behavioral inhibition system (r-BIS). Past models of frontal activity link greater relative left frontal activity with Carver and White’s (1994) BAS scale and trait impulsivity and greater relative right frontal activity with Carver and White’s (1994) BIS scale. However, the original BIS scale assesses both FFFS and r-BIS. Past work linking the BIS scale and right frontal activity does not indicate which system is related to right frontal activity. The current study (n = 182) examined frontal asymmetric activity with personality traits associated with approach (BAS), withdrawal (FFFS-Fear), behavioral inhibition (BIS-Anxiety) and impulsivity (UPPS-P). Resting frontal cortical activity was recorded using electroencephalography (EEG), and the traditional alpha band was examined. Greater BIS-Anxiety related to greater relative right frontal activity. Impulsivity related to less relative right frontal activity. BAS and FFFS-Fear (approach and withdrawal motivation) did not relate to asymmetric frontal activity. Regulatory control processes associated with r-BIS and impulsivity, rather than withdrawal motivation associated with FFFS, may be more closely related to right frontal activity.

Negative affect varying in motivational intensity influences scope of memory

Emotions influence cognitive processes involved in memory. While some research has suggested that cognitive scope is determined by affective valence, recent models of emotion-cognition interactions suggest that motivational intensity, rather than valence, influences these processes. The present research was designed to clarify how negative affects differing in motivational intensity impact memory for centrally or peripherally presented information. Experiments 1 & 2 found that, relative to a neutral condition, high intensity negative affect (anger) enhances memory for centrally presented information. Experiment 3 replicated this effect using another high intensity negative affect (threat). Experiment 4 extended this by finding that, relative to a neutral condition, low intensity negative affect (sadness) enhanced memory for peripherally presented information. Finally, in Experiment 5, the effects of sadness and threat on scope of memory were directly compared, finding that threat narrowed scope of memory, while sadness broadened scope of memory. Together, these results provide additional support for the motivational dimensional model of cognitive scope, in that high intensity emotions narrow cognitive scope, while low intensity emotions broaden cognitive scope.

The sweetness of successful goal pursuit: Approach-motivated pregoal states enhance the reward positivity during goal pursuit

Traditionally, the reward positivity (RewP) is thought to index a binary performance monitoring system sensitive to approach motivation. However, recent theoretical models have argued that feedback processing extends beyond simple "good" vs. "bad" associations, such that performance monitoring incorporates the complex, multi-step sequence of behaviors often necessary to attain rewards. The present study sought to go beyond simple stimulus-response paradigms to examine how approach-motivated states occurring in multi-step goal pursuit impacts the RewP. Additionally, outcome frequency was varied to examine how the P3, a neural marker of expectancy, influences the RewP. Using a modified monetary incentive delay paradigm, participants played a reaction time game where multiple correct responses were required to attain a reward. Additionally, each trial had the potential for a reward (approach-motivated state) or no reward (neutral state). Results revealed that RewP amplitudes were larger after reward trial win feedback than after reward trial no-win feedback across multiple stages of goal pursuit. Additionally, after for controlling outcome frequency via the P3, RewP amplitudes were larger in reward trials than in neutral trials across incremental stages of goal pursuit. The RewP appears to be sensitive to feedback indicating successfully completing sub-goals during pursuit of a goal, even when no immediate reward is given. Approach motivation enhances performance monitoring when multiple steps are needed to attain a desired outcome, which may increase the likelihood of goal acquisition and attainment.

Supervisory control system and frontal asymmetry: neurophysiological traits of emotion-based impulsivity

Approach, avoidance and the supervisory control system are fundamental to human behavior. Much past research has examined the neurophysiological models relating trait approach and avoidance. Using measures of electroencephalographic (EEG) frontal asymmetry, trait approach has been associated with greater left-frontal activity and trait avoidance has been associated with greater right-frontal activity. However, traits related to the supervisory control system have not been previously associated with frontal asymmetry. The current study sought to test whether trait positive urgency, measuring the tendency towards rash action in response to extreme positive emotional states, would relate to frontal alpha asymmetry. One hundred twenty-six individuals completed a measure of positive urgency and resting EEG recordings. Greater positive urgency was associated with greater relative left-frontal EEG activity. Source localization revealed that this relationship appeared to originate from reduced right-frontal activity in the inferior frontal gyrus. These results clarify that the link between frontal asymmetry and positive urgency is related to reduced right-frontal activity. Reduced right-frontal activity may be a potential neurobiological trait related to the supervisory control system.

Influence of trait behavioral inhibition and behavioral approach motivation systems on the LPP and frontal asymmetry to anger pictures

Behavioral approach and avoidance are fundamental to the experience of emotion and motivation, but the motivational system associated with anger is not well established. Some theories posit that approach motivational processes underlie anger, whereas others posit that avoidance motivational processes underlie anger. The current experiment sought to address whether traits related to behavioral approach or avoidance influence responses to anger stimuli using multiple measures: ERP, electroencephalographic (EEG) α-asymmetry and self-report. After completing the behavioral inhibition system/behavioral approach system (BIS/BAS) scales, participants viewed anger pictures and neutral pictures. BAS predicted larger late positive potentials (LPPs) to anger pictures, but not to neutral pictures. In addition, BAS predicted greater left-frontal asymmetry to anger pictures. Moreover, larger LPPs to anger pictures related to greater left-frontal EEG asymmetry during anger pictures. These results suggest that trait approach motivation relates to neurophysiological responses of anger.

Trait behavioral approach sensitivity (BAS) relates to early (<150 ms) electrocortical responses to appetitive stimuli

Much past research has focused on how traits related to the behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and avoidance motivation influence the almost obligatory attentional processing of aversive stimuli as measured as early as 100 ms into stimulus processing. These results fit with the functional importance assigned to the negativity bias. But do traits related to the behavioral approach system (BAS) influence attentional processing with similar rapidity? The present study addressed this unanswered question by testing whether trait BAS relates to event-related potentials (ERP) involved in rapid motivated attentional processing to appetitive stimuli. Results indicated that individual differences in BAS were correlated with larger ERP amplitudes as early as 100 ms into the processing of appetitive pictures. These results provide the first evidence linking trait approach motivational tendencies to very early stages of motivated attentional processing.

Nonaffective motivation modulates the sustained LPP (1,000-2,000 ms)

Past work has demonstrated that the sustained late positive potential (LPP) is modulated by motivational demands of affective content. The current experiment sought to investigate how motivational demands in nonaffective tasks would modulate the sustained LPP. Using a modified oddball paradigm, participants either counted the number of appearances of a nonaffective target or determined the duration length of the target. Results showed that targets in both the counted and duration tasks produced larger LPPs in the early window (400-1,000 ms) than the neutral standard. Only the duration target produced larger LPPs in the late time window (1,000-2,000 ms) than the neutral standard. These results suggest that the late LPP is a measure of persistent motivated attentional processing and can be modulated by nonaffective motivation.

Does Negative Affect Always Narrow and Positive Affect Always Broaden the Mind? Considering the Influence of Motivational Intensity on Cognitive Scope

Research over the last 5 decades has suggested that negative affective states narrow cognitive scope, whereas positive affective states broaden cognitive scope. An examination of this past research, however, reveals that only negative affects of high motivational intensity (e.g., fear, stress) and positive affects of low motivational intensity (e.g., gratitude, amusement) may have been examined. Consequently, over the last 5 years, research has examined positive and negative affects that are low (e.g., sadness) versus high (e.g., desire) in motivational intensity. This research has found that affects of low motivational intensity broaden cognitive scope whereas affects of high motivational intensity narrow cognitive scope, regardless of the positivity or negativity of the affective state.

Does arousal per se account for the influence of appetitive stimuli on attentional scope and the late positive potential?

Past research suggests that high approach-motivated positive affects narrow attentional scope and cause greater late positive potential (LPP) amplitudes. However, because arousal is related to motivational intensity, arousal may be responsible for these past findings. The present research investigated whether arousal, manipulated independently of affect using physical exercise, would influence attentional and LPP responses to stimuli. Results revealed that appetitive (vs. neutral) pictures evoked larger LPPs over central and left frontal regions, and caused more attentional narrowing. Individual differences in approach motivation predicted more attentional narrowing following appetitive stimuli. However, manipulated arousal did not influence attentional scope or LPPs to neutral or appetitive stimuli. Results suggest that attentional narrowing and LPPs to appetitive stimuli are related to approach motivation rather than enhanced general arousal.

The influence of affective states varying in motivational intensity on cognitive scope

We review a program of research that has suggested that affective states high in motivationally intensity (e.g., enthusiasm, disgust) narrow cognitive scope, whereas affective states low in motivationally intensity (e.g., joy, sadness) broaden cognitive scope. Further supporting this interpretation, indices of brain activations, derived from human electroencephalography, suggest that the motivational intensity of the affective state predicts the narrowing of cognitive scope. Finally, research suggests that the relationship between emotive intensity and cognitive scope is bi-directional, such that manipulated changes in cognitive scope influence early brain activations associated with emotive intensity. In the end, the review highlights how emotion can impair and improve certain cognitive processes.

Time Flies When You’re Having Approach-Motivated Fun

Time flies when you’re having fun, but what is it about pleasant experiences that makes time seem to go by faster? In the experiments reported here, we tested the proposal that approach motivation causes perceptual shortening of time during pleasant experiences. Relative to a neutral state or a positive state with low approach motivation (Experiment 1), a positive state with high approach motivation shortened perceptions of time. Also, individual differences in approach motivation predicted shorter perceptions of time. In Experiment 2, we manipulated approach motivation independently of the affective state and showed that increasing approach motivation caused time to be perceived as passing more quickly. In Experiment 3, we showed that positive approach motivation, as opposed to arousal, shortens perception of time by comparing a highly arousing positive state with a highly arousing negative state. Shortening of time perception in appetitive states may prolong approach-motivated behavior and increase the likelihood of acquiring appetitive objects or goals.

Interactive effects of approach motivational intensity and alcohol cues on the scope of perceptual attention

AIMS

Many theoretical perspectives suggest that alcohol-related stimuli bear on attentional processes. Building upon these ideas and recent advances regarding the attention-constricting impact of approach motivational states, we predicted that mere exposure to alcohol-related images would suffice to reduce the breadth of attention among individuals who possessed a strong motivation to consume alcohol.

DESIGN

Two studies exposed participants to alcohol and neutral cues prior to assessing attention structure. In both studies, measures of alcohol use, negative alcohol expectancies, trait approach motivation and alcohol-related approach motivation were assessed.

SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

Study 1 comprised 102 undergraduates and study 2 comprised 161 undergraduates. Studies were conducted at Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas.

MEASUREMENTS

In both studies, participants were briefly exposed to pictures of various stimuli (alcohol versus neutral pictures). After each picture was displayed, participants completed a trial assessing attentional focus.

FINDINGS

After controlling for relevant covariates, both studies demonstrated that exposure to alcohol-related pictures led to a narrowing of attentional focus among individuals who possessed a strong motivation to use alcohol. Exposure to neutral pictures, however, did not interact with alcohol-related motivation to influence attentional focus.

CONCLUSIONS

Alcohol cues narrow attentional breadth for individuals who are motivated to consume alcohol, suggesting a non-pharmacological means in which alcohol produces a narrow mindset. Alcohol cues may contribute to cognitive and behavioral deficits, as well as drinking behaviors, in part, because they lead to the inability to process a broad range of information in the environment.

Attentional consequences of pregoal and postgoal positive affects

Decades of research have suggested that all positive affective states broaden attention. Recent studies have found that positive affects high in approach motivation narrow attention, whereas positive affects low in approach motivation broaden attention. However, these studies were limited because they used only affective pictures to manipulate positive affect. The pictures, rather than the affective states created by them, may have caused individuals to focus on the emotional details of the picture, and this attentional focus may have caused the narrowing of attentional scope. Moreover, no experiment has yet to examine both low and high approach-motivated positive affect within the same individuals in the same study. The current experiments manipulated pregoal (high approach) and postgoal (low approach) positive states by giving participants the opportunity to win money on a game. Results revealed that pregoal positive affect caused a narrowing of attention, whereas postgoal positive affect caused a broadening of attention.

Toward an understanding of the influence of affective states on attentional tuning: comment on Friedman and Förster (2010)

Friedman and Förster (2010) reviewed an extensive program of research that was consistent with the view that positive affective states broaden, whereas negative affective states narrow, the scope of attention. We applaud their creative investigations into these important psychological questions and appreciate their thorough review. However, recent evidence strongly suggests that the conclusions drawn by Friedman and Förster need to be tempered, for the recent evidence suggests that motivational intensity rather than affective valence causes the modulations of attentional tuning. That is, affective states of low motivational intensity (e.g., sadness, postgoal positive affect) broaden attention, whereas affective states of high motivational intensity (e.g., disgust, pregoal positive affect) narrow attention. Our viewpoint is that attentional narrowing occurs during affective states of high motivational intensity to aid organisms in acquiring desirable objects and avoiding aversive ones. Attentional broadening occurs during affective states of low motivational intensity to open organisms to new opportunities.

Attitudes toward emotions

The present work outlines a theory of attitudes toward emotions, provides a measure of attitudes toward emotions, and then tests several predictions concerning relationships between attitudes toward specific emotions and emotional situation selection, emotional traits, emotional reactivity, and emotion regulation. The present conceptualization of individual differences in attitudes toward emotions focuses on specific emotions and presents data indicating that 5 emotions (anger, sadness, joy, fear, and disgust) load on 5 separate attitude factors (Study 1). Attitudes toward emotions predicted emotional situation selection (Study 2). Moreover, attitudes toward approach emotions (e.g., anger, joy) correlated directly with the associated trait emotions, whereas attitudes toward withdrawal emotions (fear, disgust) correlated inversely with associated trait emotions (Study 3). Similar results occurred when attitudes toward emotions were used to predict state emotional reactivity (Study 4). Finally, attitudes toward emotions predicted specific forms of emotion regulation (Study 5).

The Effect of Commitment on Relative Left Frontal Cortical Activity: Tests of the Action-Based Model of Dissonance

The action-based model of dissonance and recent advances in neuroscience suggest that commitment to action should cause greater relative left frontal cortical activity. Two experiments were conducted in which electroencephalographic activity was recorded following commitment to action, operationalized with a perceived choice manipulation. Perceived high as compared to low choice to engage in the action, regardless of whether it was counterattitudinal or proattitudinal, caused greater relative left frontal cortical activity. Moreover, perceived high as compared to low choice caused attitudes to be more consistent with the action. These results broaden the theoretical reach of the action-based model by suggesting that similar neural and motivational processes are involved in attitudinal responses to counterattitudinal and proattitudinal commitments.

The effect of low versus high approach-motivated positive affect on memory for peripherally versus centrally presented information

Emotions influence attention and processes involved in memory. Although some research has suggested that positive affect categorically influences these processes differently than neutral affect, recent research suggests that motivational intensity of positive affective states influences these processes. The present experiments examined memory for centrally or peripherally presented information after the evocation of approach-motivated positive affect. Experiment 1 found that, relative to neutral conditions, pregoal, approach-motivated positive affect (caused by a monetary incentives task) enhanced memory for centrally presented information, whereas postgoal, low approach-motivated positive affect enhanced memory for peripherally presented information. Experiment 2 found that, relative to a neutral condition, high approach-motivated positive affect (caused by appetitive pictures) enhanced memory for centrally presented information but hindered memory for peripheral information. These results suggest a more complex relationship between positive affect and memory processes and highlight the importance of considering the motivational intensity of positive affects in cognitive processes.