Gender Differences in Theory of Mind, Empathic Understanding, and Moral Reasoning in an Offending and a Matched Non-Offending Population

Previous research suggests that a lack of pro-social skills is characteristic of an offending personality. Two hundred male and female offenders and matched controls completed measures to assess: Theory of Mind, empathic understanding, and moral reasoning. Significant differences between the offenders and the control group, as well as between the male and female participants, were detected in theory of mind, empathic understanding and moral reasoning with offenders scoring lower than the control group, and with males scoring lower than females on most tests. The ability to assess Theory of Mind, empathic understanding, and moral reasoning, and subsequently to identify reduced ability, is not only useful for researchers but will also allow practitioners to tailor existing (or develop new) interventions specific to the needs of individuals. This could be particularly useful in terms of recidivism when applied to those involved in anti-social or offending behavior.

When the Evidence Is Incorrect: an Exploration of What Happens When Interviewers Unwittingly Present Inaccurate Information in Interviews with Suspects

Skillfully presenting evidence/information to suspects is one of the few interviewing techniques that increases the likelihood of guilty suspects providing information or making a confession, without making innocent ones do so as well. It is important that this evidence/information is correct, since deliberately disclosing incorrect evidence poses some risks. Also, in real-life interviews, police interviewers may unwittingly disclose incorrect evidence, for example when a witness was mistaken and provided the police with incorrect information. The present study examined the behavior of fifty police interviewers in interviews with "suspects" of a scripted crime: what is their response when the interviewees try to explain to them that some of the evidence/information just disclosed by them is incorrect? Eleven interviewers responded adaptively (by actively picking up on this new information), 35 responded in a neutral way and four responded maladaptively (by discrediting the interviewee's claim). Experience and a full interview training had a significant negative relationship with adaptiveness. These results indicate that, when preparing and conducting interviews with suspects, greater awareness is needed of the possibility that some of the evidence/information that is to be disclosed could be incorrect, and therefore it is crucial that suspects' responses which suggest such may be the case are taken into account.

Applying Hierarchy of Expert Performance (HEP) to investigative interview evaluation: strengths, challenges and future directions

The purpose of this paper is to systematically examine the research literature on the decision of expert interviewers within the theoretical framework of the Hierarchy of Expert Performance (HEP). After providing an overview of the HEP framework, existing research in the investigative interviewing at each of the eight levels of the HEP framework is reviewed. The results identify areas of strength in reliability between experts' observations (Level 2) and of weakness in reliability between experts' conclusions (Level 6). Biases in investigative interview experts' decision making is also revealed at biasability between expert conclusions (Level 8). Moreover, no published data are available in reliability within experts at the level of observations (Level 1) or conclusions (Level 5), biasability within or between expert observations (Level 3 and 4) and biasability within expert conclusions (Level 7). The findings highlight areas where future research and practical endeavour are much needed for the investigative interview.

Investigative empathy: a strength scale of empathy based on European police perspectives

A growing body of research suggests that empathy plays a major role in establishing and maintaining rapport during police interviews. The benefits of rapport include not only increased cooperation from interviewees, but also gaining more accurate investigation-relevant information. However, there still is no universally agreed-upon definition and very little research on operationalizing empathy, especially within investigative interviewing. The present study analyzed police interviewers' self-reports regarding their (a) training and methods employed during interviews, (b) application of empathy in interviews, and (c) definitions/understanding of empathy. It was found that officers in all seven participating countries varied within each country in their use of accusatory or information-gathering interview styles. The majority of participants in each country claimed to employ empathy in their interviews with suspects, yet they varied regarding the definitions they provided. In no country was empathy defined as having aspects that may not be conducive to investigative interviewing.

No Evidence Against Sketch Reinstatement of Context, Verbal Labels or the Use of Registered Intermediaries for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Response to Henry et al. (2017)

Recently, Henry et al. (J Autism Dev Disord 8:2348-2362, 2017) found no evidence for the use of Verbal Labels, Sketch Reinstatement of Context and Registered Intermediaries by forensic practitioners when interviewing children with a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder. We consider their claims, noting the limited ecological validity of the experimental paradigm, the impacts of repeated interviewing where retrieval support is not provided at first retrieval, question the interviewer/intermediary training and their population relevant experience, and comment on the suppression of population variances. We submit that rejecting these techniques on the basis of this study is completely unwarranted and potentially damaging, particularly if used in legal proceedings to undermine the value of testimony from children with ASD, who continually struggle to gain access to justice.

Hepatitis C-specific effector and regulatory CD4 T-cell responses are associated with the outcomes of primary infection

Clearance of primary hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection has been associated with strong and broadly targeted cellular immune responses. This study aimed to characterize HCV-specific CD4+ effector and regulatory T-cell numbers and cytokine production during primary infection. Antigen-specific CD4+ T-cell responses were investigated in a longitudinal cohort of subjects from pre-infection to postoutcome, including subjects who cleared [n=12] or became chronically infected [n=17]. A cross-sectional cohort with previously cleared, or chronic infection [n=15 for each], was also studied. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were incubated with HCV antigens and surface stained for T-effector (CD4+CD25^high CD134+CD39-) and T-regulatory (CD4+CD25^high CD134+CD39+) markers, and culture supernatants assayed for cytokine production. Contrary to expectations, the breadth and magnitude of the HCV-specific CD4+ T-cell responses were higher in subjects who became chronically infected. Subjects who cleared the virus had HCV-specific CD4+ T-cell responses dominated by effector T cells and produced higher levels of IFN-γ, in contrast to HCV-specific CD4+ T-cell responses dominated by regulatory T cells and more IL-10 production in those who became chronically infected. Better understanding of the role of antigen-specific CD4+ T-cell responses in primary HCV will further define pathogenesis and help guide development of a preventative vaccine.

A Comparative Study of Lead Nephrotoxicity and Tissue Deposition Between Rats, Mice, and Pigeons Exposed to Drinking Water Containing 2, 20, or 200 ppm Lead

White Carnaew pigeons were exposed to drinking water containing various concentrations of lead to study the relationship between exposure and tissue deposition and the relationship between the concentrations of lead in kidney and morphologic alterations. The concentration of lead in the blood was the only tissue which showed a linear increase with respect to the concentration of lead in the drinking water. The concentration of lead in the liver, kidney, brain, heart, aorta, and pancreas increased in response to lead in the drinking water; however, these increases were not linear with respect to lead exposure. Similar results were obtained for rats and mice exposed via the drinking water to 2, 20, or 200 ppm lead; however, the concentration of lead in tissues was substantially greater in pigeons. Kidneys from rats and mice appeared normal following the exposure of 200 ppm lead for 4 months, whereas, in kidneys from pigeons exposed to 200 ppm for a similar period of time there was tubular degeneration, fibrosis, and acid fast intranuclear inclusion bodies. These pathoanatomic alterations may be related to the concentration lead found in the kidney in pigeons. The concentration of lead in the kidney was 3,930 μg gram dry weight for pigeons but only 40 and 6 μg for mice and rats respectively. These studies suggest that the pigeon is more responsive to ingested lead than the rat or mouse. The renal lesions induced by chronic lead exposure are similar in pigeons and man suggesting that the pigeon may be useful animal model to study the yet unanswered questions related to chronic nephritis following lead poisoning.

An Investigation of the Specialist Police Service Provided to Male Rape Survivors

This study involves Sexual Offences Investigative Technique (SOIT) officers completing a semi-structured questionnaire (disseminated with the assistance of a British police force). This questionnaire included questions about their specialist occupation regarding the provision of victim care, their investigative function and how it adheres to responsibilities outlined in policy documents regarding expectations of the SOIT officer. Questions about service provisions were then put to male and female rape survivors to investigate whether a differential level of service exists regarding victim gender. For example, survivors were asked as to (i) the response of the police on reporting, (ii) the procedures followed, (iii) the level of communication maintained throughout their case and (iv) their suggestions for improvement of the service received in light of their experience. The police and survivor data were analysed using thematic analysis and compared. Key issues which were highlighted by survivors and police officers included the importance of regular communications about the progress of the case. Rape survivors also expressed a lack of confidence in the judicial system; this was more pronounced in adult males. Furthermore, the limited resources available to SOIT officers were found to impact negatively on the service provided to rape survivors.

Interviewing Child Witnesses: Past and Future

Much of the improvement in child witness interviewing in England and Wales has been based on the findings of psychological research concerning memory and language. However, relatively little research has been conducted on the possible influence of interviewer style or manner. This article reviews the limited previous research on this topic and presents a new study. It seems that an authoritative interviewing style may increase children's errors to suggestive questions.

Police Detectives' Aims regarding Their Interviews with Suspects: Any Change at the Turn of the Millennium?

How can valid information be obtained in police interviews with suspects? How can false confessions be avoided? Answers to these questions will help convict the guilty and avoid miscarriages of justice. Unfortunately, very little research on real-life interviews with suspects has been carried out due to the sensitive nature of the topic, and all the difficulties of access such research entials. The present study sought to gather police detectives' views on the ways they conducted interviews with uncooperative suspects. It was found that specialised training in the investigative interviewing of suspects, as well as good preparation of the interview beforehand and the social skills of the interviewers, are judged by the detectives to be of utmost importance when dealing with uncooperative suspects. In addition, the actual style of the interview was reported to be influenced by various factors, such as the available evidence in a given case, the actual nature of the crime, and the interviewer's approach towards the suspect (and vice versa).

The Stigmatizing Effect of Facial Disfigurement

Most research on the stigmatizing effect of facial disfigurement has taken place in London, England. The present study found that irrespective of whether they were nurses or office workers, women both in Nigeria and in England rated faces that had a minor scar as less sociable, less attractive, and more dishonest than did women who saw the same stimulus faces when "normal." Few interactions were found between the variables of disfigurement, race of face, race of rater, and type of rater employment.

Stereotypical Verbal and Nonverbal Responses While Deceiving Others

This experiment examined the impact of public self-consciousness and acting ability on processes and stereotypical responses during deception. Seventy-three nursing students were videotaped while (a) telling the truth and (b) lying about a theft they had observed. A variety of cues were coded, including criteria-based content analysis (CBCA) and reality monitoring (RM), in which high scores indicated honest responding. Compared with truth tellers, liars waited longer before giving an answer, spoke faster, made more speech hesitations, showed fewer illustrators, and showed lower CBCA and RM scores. Public self-consciousness was positively correlated with trying to control behavior but negatively correlated with RM scores. Ability to act was negatively correlated with RM scores, with showing stereotypical deceptive facial behavior (gaze aversion and smiling), with having to think hard while lying, and with being nervous while lying.

Confirmatory factor analysis of the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire in Singaporean kindergartners

BACKGROUND

The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) assesses behavioural adjustment in children aged 3 to 16 years. To ascertain the appropriateness of the scale for a specific population, it is important to examine whether the distinctiveness of the scale dimensions can be verified empirically.

AIMS

Confirmatory factor analysis was used to test explicitly which of three models better explain our data, and whether model fit was improved by the addition of method factors.

METHODS

Parents of 411 Singaporean kindergartners completed the SDQ.

RESULTS

A four-factor multi-trait multi-method model (Prosocial, Conduct, Hyperactivity, Internalizing and two method factors) provided the best fit to the data. There was strong evidence for convergent and discriminant validity. However, differences in configural loading pattern indicated gender-related differences in the mapping of the SDQ items.

DISCUSSION

Differences in factor structure across countries and gender may reflect differing conceptions of the underlying dimensions, as well as differences in normative expectations. However, our findings may allow its use as a screening tool to identify Singaporean children at risk of emotional and behavioural difficulties.

A brief report on rape myth acceptance: differences between police officers, law students, and psychology students in the United Kingdom

A common perception is that police officers hold very negative attitudes about rape victims. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to establish whether police officers do accept stereotypical rape myths at a higher level compared to members of other populations. There were 3 comparison samples, composed of police officers, law students, and psychology students, that completed the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance scale. Male and female police officers accepted "she lied" myths at a higher level than the student samples. Student samples were found to accept 2 types of rape myths ("she asked for it" and "he didn't meant to") at a higher level compared to police officers. No significant differences were found in the other 4 subfactors. Therefore, the pattern of results suggests that police officers do not adhere to stereotypical myths about rape victims more than do other populations.

Archival analyses of eyewitness identification test outcomes: what can they tell us about eyewitness memory?

Several archival studies of eyewitness identification have been conducted, but the results have been inconsistent and contradictory. We identify some avoidable pitfalls that have been present in previous analyses and present new data that address these pitfalls. We explored associations among various estimator variables and lineup outcomes for 833 "real life" lineups, including 588 lineups in which corroborating evidence of the suspect's guilt existed. Suspect identifications were associated with exposure duration, viewing distance, and the age of the witness. Nonidentifications were associated with the number of perpetrators. We also consider some of the inherent, unavoidable limitations with archival studies and consider what such studies can really tell researchers. We conclude that differences in sampling prohibit sensible comparisons between the results of laboratory and archival studies, and that the informational value of archival studies is actually rather limited.

The Enhanced Cognitive Interview: Towards a Better Use and Understanding of This Procedure

The Enhanced Cognitive Interview is accepted as one of the most successful techniques for enhancing witness recollection. This type of interview has been studied all over the world (eg, Europe or the USA) and is used by police officers in many different countries (eg, the UK and New Zealand). Nonetheless, it is essential for police officers to understand how, and when, to properly apply this interview. Therefore, we examined the underlying psychological processes involved in this interview, and what research can tells us about the situations and purposes that can benefit from applying it.

Rare occurrence of occult hepatitis C virus in apparently uninfected injecting drug users: a two-centre, masked, case-control study

Occult hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a phenomenon where serum HCV RNA is not detected by sensitive commercial assays, but viral RNA is detected by ultrasensitive techniques. Occult HCV infection has not previously been studied in highly exposed, but apparently uninfected (EU) individuals. Two studies examining occult infection in EU subjects were undertaken - an initial two-centre, masked, case-control study based on cross-sectional samples (n = 35 subjects) and a single-centre confirmatory study based on longitudinal samples (n = 32 subjects). Plasma and peripheral blood mononuclear cells were tested for HCV RNA using an ultrasensitive nested polymerase chain reaction assays. Two EU subjects in the first study (10%) and one in the second study (3%) were found to have consistently detectable HCV RNA. Occult HCV infection occurs in high-risk, apparently uninfected subjects.

Contrasting approaches to end of life and palliative care in end stage kidney disease

With increased numbers of the elderly, including nursing home patients, being accepted for end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) management, there is heightened interest and focus on end of life decisions, advanced care planning and directives, withdrawal from dialysis and palliative care in this setting. Despite this, care at the individual patient level can vary greatly. Here, we present two contrasting cases to highlight the importance of early and ongoing involvement of palliative care in patients with ESKD. In the first case, a high quality of life was preserved before the patient died with dignity, with early interdisciplinary palliative care involvement. In the second case there was a long protracted period of poor quality of life prior to death. This was associated with resistance to the involvement of palliative care, mainly from the family. Addressing end of life care issues early in the chronic kidney disease (CKD) trajectory and ensuring patients, their families and health care providers are well informed, may contribute to a better outcome for the patient and their family.

Reducing misinformation effects in older adults with cognitive interview mnemonics

We examined the effect of a prior Modified Cognitive Interview on young and older adults' recall of a short film of a staged crime and subsequent reporting of misinformation. Participants viewed the film followed the next day by misinformation presented in a postevent summary. They were then interviewed with either a Modified Cognitive Interview or a control interview followed by a recognition memory test. A Modified Cognitive Interview elicited more correct details and improved overall accuracy compared to a control interview in both age groups, although the young adults recollected three times more correct information in a Modified Cognitive Interview than the older adults. In both age groups, correct recollections of person and action details were higher in a Modified Cognitive Interview than a control interview. Importantly, older adults who were interviewed with a Modified Cognitive Interview were not susceptible to misinformation effects.

Interviewing Cooperative Witnesses

Police interviews of witnesses are critical for solving crimes, yet police are poorly trained and often make mistakes when interviewing witnesses who are cooperative. To overcome this limitation, researchers have developed the cognitive interview (CI), which incorporates principles of cognitive and social psychology in a face-to-face interview format. Laboratory and field research show that the CI elicits considerably more information than conventional interviews in criminal and noncriminal investigations. We explore the real-world applications of the CI.

Oedema in obesity; role of structural lymphatic abnormalities

Oedema is a common finding in obesity and its cause is not always clear. Possible causes include impairment of cardiac, respiratory and/or renal function, chronic venous insufficiency and lymphatic problems. Lymphoscintigraphy is the best method to detect structural lymphatic abnormalities that can cause lymphoedema. We reviewed 49 female subjects with pitting oedema who had undergone lymphoscintigraphy, divided in three groups. The first group was comprised of severely obese patients in whom cardiorespiratory causes for oedema had been excluded. The second group consisted of non-obese patients with recognized causes for oedema and the third group was non-obese patients with 'idiopathic' oedema. A standard classification was used to interpret lymphoscintigraphy results. The frequency and severity of lymphoscintigraphic abnormalities was greatest in patients with clinical diagnoses of oedema related to 'recognized causes' (any abnormality in 50% of legs with obstruction in 22%). Obese patients and those with 'idiopathic'oedema had fewer (P=0.02 for both) and milder lymphoscintographic abnormalities (any abnormality 32 and 25%, respectively, obstruction 5 and 3%, respectively), and although the clinical oedema was invariably bilateral, the lymphoscintigraphy abnormalities were usually unilateral. In conclusion, structural lymphoscintigraphic abnormalities are uncommon in obesity and do not closely correlate with the clinical pattern of oedema.

Understanding juror perceptions of forensic evidence: investigating the impact of case context on perceptions of forensic evidence strength

The most widely accepted model of juror decision making acknowledges the importance of both the case-specific information presented in the courtroom, as well as the prior general knowledge and beliefs held by each juror. The studies presented in this paper investigated whether mock jurors could differentiate between evidence of varying strengths in the absence of case information and then followed on to determine the influence that case context (and therefore the story model) has on judgments made about the strength of forensic DNA evidence. The results illustrated that mock jurors correctly identified various strengths of evidence when it was not presented with case information; however, the perceived strength of evidence was significantly inflated when presented in the context of a criminal case, particularly when the evidence was of a weak or ambiguous standard. These findings are discussed in relation to the story model, and the potential implications for real juries.

Exposure duration: Effects on eyewitness accuracy and confidence

The current study examined the relationship between the length of exposure to a face in an eyewitness setting and identification accuracy and confidence. A sample of 164 young (ages 17-25) and older (ages 59-81) adults viewed a simulated crime in which they saw the culprit's face for a short (12 s) or long (45 s) duration. They were then tested with a target absent (a line-up not containing the culprit) or target present line-up. Identification accuracy rates for both young and older participants were significantly higher under the long exposure condition. In the short exposure condition, witnesses who had made a correct identification of the target were more confident than incorrect witnesses. In the long exposure condition the confidence ratings of accurate and inaccurate witnesses did not differ. Discussion focuses on the extent to which extended exposure may inflate confidence judgments and variables that may moderate the relationship between exposure duration and face recognition accuracy.

False reports of childhood events in appropriate interviews

The present study employed the "parental misinformation" paradigm to examine whether individuals report false events from their childhood even when they are interviewed in an appropriate manner by a trained interviewer. Each participant was interviewed on three occasions. By the final interview, one participant produced a "full" report, and six participants produced "partial" reports, of childhood events that did not occur. Although participants reported perceiving greater pressure to report the false events than the real events, independent judges' ratings of social pressure in the interviews did not differ as a function of what type of event participants were being asked about. Participants also reported higher confidence in their parents', compared to their own, recall of events from their childhood. False reports were also positively correlated with scores on both the full and the revised versions of the Dissociative Experiences Scale, and negatively correlated with score on the Self-Monitoring scale. These results indicate that, despite being interviewed in an appropriate manner by a trained interviewer, some participants will falsely report events from their childhoods.

Male rape victim and perpetrator blaming

One of four possible vignettes manipulated by (a) level of rape myth contained within them (low vs. high) and (b) type of rape (stranger vs. acquaintance) was presented to participants followed by scales measuring victim blame, perpetrator blame, belief in a just world, sex-role egalitarian beliefs, and male rape myth acceptance. Victim blaming was predicted by male rape myth acceptance. Perpetrator blaming was predicted by male rape myth acceptance and sex-role egalitarianism. Differences were found in victim and perpetrator blaming in terms of stranger and acquaintance rape and also in relation to manipulating the level of rape myths. Findings are discussed in relation to the previous literature on rape victim and perpetrator blaming.