The role of cue salience in prospective memory commission errors in nonperformed nonfocal tasks

Prospective memory (PM) refers to the ability to remember to execute an intention in the future without having a permanent reminder. These intentions can be performed when they are not relevant or become no-longer needed, the so-called "commission errors". The present study aims to understand the effect of cue salience on PM commission errors with unperformed intentions and on the ongoing task performance-associated costs. Through a between-subjects design, eighty-one participants were assigned to 3 conditions: the no-PM condition, which served as control, and the salient and nonsalient conditions, which were asked to perform a lexical decision task and an incomplete nonfocal prospective memory task (i.e. no PM cues were presented). Subsequently, participants were instructed to no longer execute the prospective intention. In the second phase, a lexical decision task occurred again, including irrelevant PM cues, which should not be answered as such. In the salient condition, cues were salient (i.e. presented in red or blue background). In contrast, in the nonsalient condition, PM cues appeared on a black background, as any other stimuli. In the no-PM control condition, participants only performed an LDT. A commission error occurred when the (irrelevant) intention was performed in this second phase. Results showed that more participants performed a commission error in the presence of salient cues, even when PM intentions became irrelevant. Additionally, when cues were not salient, participants took longer to answer the LDT, as reasoned by the spontaneous retrieval theory. These findings are discussed according to the dual-mechanism account.

Forensic Interview Techniques in Child Sexual Abuse Cases: A Scoping Review

Child sexual abuse (CSA) is widely recognized as a global public health problem with negative consequences for victims, their families, and society. The child's testimony is essential to the case outcome, given the frequent absence of physical or biological evidence of the abusive acts. Thus, the child forensic interview plays a decisive role in criminal investigation. The present scoping review aims to identify and describe the judicial procedures for collecting CSA victims' testimony using an evidence-based approach and a structured methodology. The review followed Preferred Reporting Items of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis-Scoping Review guidelines. Studies were identified through manual reference checking and in four electronic databases: PsycARTICLES, PubMed, SCOPUS, and Web of Science. In all, 146 studies were identified according to the defined inclusion criteria, that is, empirical studies identifying judicial procedures to collect CSA victims' testimony, published in English or Portuguese. In total, 30 different forensic interview procedures to collect the child victim's testimony were found. The National Institute for Child Health and Human Development investigative interview protocol was the most frequently mentioned. Despite the variety of protocols, it was possible to conclude that they have a similar general structure. This review also identified gaps in interviewing practices with CSA victims. The scoping review corroborates the importance of forensic interviews with CSA victims, stating its implications for criminal investigation, the legal system, and the child's recovery process.

Did I text you? The influence of the mode of transmission on destination memory

In a society where people often communicate through digital technology, it is crucial to investigate whether the transmission mode influences destination memory performance (our capacity to remember to whom we transmitted certain information). In Experiment 1, we asked young adults (N = 31) to share of a set of familiar proverbs only by typing and the rest by both typing and saying them aloud. Better destination memory was observed when the information was transmitted by the two means (aloud and typing). Did this better performance occur because participants shared the information aloud or because the information was transmitted by two means? In Experiment 2, young adults (N = 34) shared familiar proverbs aloud, by typing, or simultaneously aloud and by typing. Results showed that transmission aloud led to a better destination memory than typing, and no further improvement occurred when the transmission was both aloud and by typing. Additionally, no differences were observed regarding item memory, supporting the idea that item and destination memories are two different types of memory.

"Choose it, and remember it": The impact of choice on destination memory

Destination memory can be defined as the capacity to remember to whom we transmit information. It is measured through the accuracy of retrieving the association between the information we transmit and the person to whom we transmit it. A destination memory procedure aims to emulate human interaction by sharing facts with celebrities (i.e., familiar faces) since we often communicate with people we know. However, the role of the choice about who we intend to transmit the information to has not been evaluated before. This paper investigated whether deciding with whom to share a piece of information benefits destination memory. We designed two experiments with different levels of cognitive load, increasing it from Experiment 1 to Experiment 2. The experiments included two conditions: the choice condition, in which participants chose from two options to whom they desired to share a fact, and the no-choice condition, in which participants simply shared facts with celebrities without the possibility of a choice. Experiment 1 suggested that a choice component did not affect destination memory. However, when in Experiment 2 we raised the cognitive load by increasing the number of stimuli, we found that selecting the recipient during the more challenging task provided an advantage in destination memory. This result is congruent with the explanation that the shift of the participants' attentional resources to the recipient, caused by the choice component, leads to a destination memory improvement. In sum, it seems that a choice component can improve destination memory only under demanding attentional conditions.

The impact of the use of masks on trait judgments and face recognition

Although effective in reducing virus transmission, face masks might compromise face recognition and trait judgments. With this study, we aimed to observe the influence of masks on face recognition and trait judgments-more specifically, in trustworthiness, dominance, and distinctiveness judgments. Also, we wanted to observe the possible influence of trait judgments on facial recognition for masked and unmasked faces, which has never been done before. For that, we conducted an online study where 140 participants observed and made trait judgments of masked and unmasked faces in a within-subjects design. After a distractive task, participants performed a recognition memory test. As expected, we observed a better recognition of faces shown without a mask during the study phase, which allowed the holistic processing of the faces. The worst performance was found for faces encoded with a mask but tested without it, occurring simultaneity disruption in holistic face processing and the violation of the encoding specificity principle. Regarding the trait judgments, unmasked faces were considered more distinctive, and masked faces were considered more trustworthy. More interestingly, we can conclude that facial distinctiveness predicts face recognition, regardless of mask use. In contrast, dominance judgments only predicted face recognition when faces were presented without a mask. When faces were exposed with masks, trustworthiness overrides dominance, becoming more critical to recognizing faces. We can interpret these results from an evolutionary perspective.

Memory Impairments and Wellbeing in Breast Cancer Patients: A Systematic Review

Breast cancer is one of the most diagnosed cancers among women. Its effects on the cognitive and wellbeing domains have been widely reported in the literature, although with inconsistent results. The central goal of this review was to identify, in women with breast cancer, the main memory impairments, as measured by objective and subjective tools and their relationship with wellbeing outcomes. The systematic literature search was conducted in the PubMed, Scopus, and ProQuest databases. The selected studies included 9 longitudinal and 10 cross-sectional studies. Although some studies included participants undergoing multimodal cancer therapies, most focused on chemotherapy's effects (57.89%; n = 11). The pattern of results was mixed. However, studies suggested more consistently working memory deficits in breast cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy. In addition, some associations have been identified between objective memory outcomes (verbal memory) and wellbeing indicators, particularly depression and anxiety. The inconsistencies in the results could be justified by the heterogeneity of the research designs, objective and subjective measures, and sample characteristics. This review confirms that more empirical evidence is needed to understand memory impairments in women with breast cancer. An effort to increase the homogeneity of study methods should be made in future studies.

Collaborative inhibition effect: the role of memory task and retrieval method

It is well established that the recall of collaborative groups is lower than the pooled recall of an equal number of lone individuals-the collaborative inhibition effect (Weldon and Bellinger, J Exp Psychol Learn Memory Cogn 23(5):1160-1175, 1997). This is arguably the case because group members have conflicting retrieval strategies that disrupt each other's recall-the retrieval strategies disruption hypothesis (Basden et al., J Exp Psychol Learn Memory Cogn 23(5):1176-1191, 1997). In two experiments, we further examined this hypothesis by testing whether the memory task (free recall vs. serial recall) and the recall method (turn-taking vs. unconstraint) moderate collaborative inhibition. Experiment 1 compared the performance of collaborative and nominal groups in a free recall and a serial recall task. Results revealed collaborative inhibition in free recall, but this effect was reduced in serial recall. In Experiment 2, collaborative and nominal performance was compared in the same tasks with collaborative but also nominal groups, using the turn-taking method. The collaborative inhibition effect was still observed in free recall, although to a lesser extent when participants in nominal groups used the turn-taking method. In the serial recall task, the collaborative inhibition effect was eliminated. Taken together, these results further support retrieval strategies disruption as an explanation for the collaborative inhibition effect.

The influence of information generation on destination memory

To remember to whom we transmit information, we rely on destination memory, with worse performance occurring when participants share personal facts (e.g., my age is . . .) compared with interesting ones (e.g., a shrimp's heart is in its head). When reporting personal information, the internal attentional focus decreases the attentional resources available to associate that information with recipients, resulting in worse destination memory. Given that the poorer destination memory when participants transmitted personal facts was always compared with the transmission of interesting facts, in Experiment 1 (between-participants design: 41 participants) and Experiment 2 (within-participants design: 30 participants), we compared the generation and transmission of personal facts with the transmission of familiar proverbs. Again, the generation and transmission of personal facts hampered destination memory. Besides the type of information (personal vs. familiar proverbs), the conditions differed regarding the type of process (generation vs. transmission of information). To clarify the influence of generation on destination memory, in Experiment 3 (N = 31), participants (1) transmitted and (2) generated and transmitted familiar proverbs, and significant differences in destination memory between the conditions was not observed. In general, our experiments seem to support the assumption that transmitting personal information leads to worse destination memory not because participants generated the information but because personal facts drive the attentional focus to the self.

Stimuli in 3 Acts: A normative study on action-statements, action videos and object photos

The study of action observation and imagery, separately and combined, is expanding in diverse research areas (e.g., sports psychology, neurosciences), making clear the need for action-related stimuli (i.e., action statements, videos, and pictures). Although several databases of object and action pictures are available, norms on action videos are scarce. In this study, we validated a set of 60 object-related everyday actions in three different formats: action-statements, and corresponding dynamic (action videos) and static (object photos) stimuli. In Study 1, ratings of imageability, image agreement, action familiarity, action frequency, and action valence were collected from 161 participants. In Study 2, a different sample of 115 participants rated object familiarity, object valence, and object-action prototypicality. Most actions were rated as easy to imagine, familiar, and neutral or positive in valence. However, there was variation in the frequency with which participants perform these actions on a daily basis. High agreement between participants' mental image and action videos was also found, showing that the videos depict a conventional way of performing the actions. Objects were considered familiar and positive in valence. High ratings on object-action prototypicality indicate that the actions correspond to prototypical actions for most objects. 3ActStimuli is a comprehensive set of stimuli that can be useful in several research areas, allowing the combined study of action observation and imagery.

False memory in between-language conditions: a brief review on the effect of encoding and retrieving in different languages

False memories have been extensively investigated over the past few decades using the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm. In this paradigm, participants study lists of words associatively related to a non-presented critical lure. During a memory test, these critical lures are falsely recalled or recognized. Most studies have focused on false memories that arise when both encoding and retrieval are conducted in the same language (i.e., within-language conditions), which is typically the participant's native or first language (L1). However, much less is known about false memories when critical lures appear in the memory test in a different language than the studied lists (i.e., between-language conditions), being one of them the participant's second language (L2). The main objective of this exhaustive review was to provide an overview of the current state of research on false recognition using the DRM paradigm in between-language conditions, where languages are switched between encoding and retrieval (i.e., L1L2 versus L2L1). The results revealed a language dominance effect in between-language false memories. In other words, false recognition rates were dependent on the study language, with a trend toward higher false recognition when words were enconded in the L1 (L1L2) compared to when words were encoded in the L2 (L2L1). This review enhances our understanding of how studying words in a first or second language affects false memory in the DRM paradigm, emphasizing the significance of investigating false memory in second language speakers and the necessity for further research in the field.

Remembering to whom we transmit information during pandemics: the effect of face masks on destination memory

Considering the global pandemic we currently experience, face masks have become standard in our daily routine. Even though surgical masks are established as a safety measure against the dissemination of COVID-19, previous research showed that their wearing compromises face recognition. Consequently, the capacity to remember to whom we transmit information-destination memory-could also be compromised. In our study, through a between-participants design (experiment 1) and a within-participants design (experiment 2), undergraduate students have to transmit Portuguese proverbs to masked and unmasked celebrity faces. Following our hypothesis, participants who shared information with masked faces had worse destination memory performance than those who shared information with unmasked faces. Also, we observed lower recognition for masked faces compared to unmasked faces. These results were expected since using a surgical mask affects facial recognition, thus making it harder to recognize a person to whom information was previously transmitted. More importantly, these results also support the idea that variables associated with the recipient's face are important for destination memory performance.

The impact of COVID-19 on memory: Recognition for masked and unmasked faces

Considering the current state of the worldwide pandemic, it is still common to encounter people wearing face protection masks. Although a safety measure against COVID-19, face masks might be compromising our capacity for face recognition. We conducted an online study where 140 participants observed masked and unmasked faces in a within-subjects design and then performed a recognition memory task. The best performance was found when there were no masks either at study and test phase, i.e., at the congruent unmasked condition. The worst performance was found for faces encoded with a mask but tested without it (i.e., masked-unmasked incongruent condition), which can be explained by the disruption in holistic face processing and the violation of the encoding specificity principle. Interestingly, considering the unmasked-masked incongruent condition, performance was probably affected by the violation of the encoding specificity principle but protected by holistic processing that occurred during encoding.

Do Beliefs About Font Size Affect Retrospective Metamemory Judgments in Addition to Prospective Judgments?

Beliefs about how memory works explain several effects on prospective metamemory judgments (e.g., the effect of font size on judgments of learning; JOLs). Less is known about the effect of beliefs on retrospective judgments (i.e., confidence). Here, we tested whether font size also affects confidence ratings and whether beliefs play a similar role in confidence than in JOLs. In two experiments, participants studied words in small and large size, rated JOLs, and completed a font-size test in which they indicated the font size at study and a standard old/new recognition test. The results confirmed that font size affected both JOLs and confidence ratings. The presentation of the counter-belief that memory is better for words in small font size in Experiment 2 and the analyses of confidence for participants who did not believe that large fonts improved memory suggested that the effect of font size on confidence was based on beliefs. This research shows that the debate on theory-based and experience-based factors should not be limited to prospective metamemory judgments but also encompass retrospective judgments.

Feelings of Contrast at Test Reduce False Memory in the Deese/Roediger-McDermott Paradigm

False memories in the Deese/Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm are explained in terms of the interplay between error-inflating and error-editing (e.g., monitoring) mechanisms. In this study, we focused on disqualifying monitoring, a decision process that helps to reject false memories through the recollection of collateral information (i.e., recall-to-reject strategies). Participants engage in recall-to-reject strategies using one or two metacognitive processes: (1) applying the logic of mutual exclusivity or (2) experiencing feelings of contrast between studied items and unstudied lures. We aimed to provide, for the first time in the DRM literature, evidence favorable to the existence of a recall-to-reject strategy based on the experience of feelings of contrast. One hundred and forty participants studied six-word DRM lists (e.g., spy, hell, fist, fight, abduction, mortal), simultaneously associated with three critical lures (e.g., WAR, BAD, FEAR). Lists differed in their ease to identify their critical lures (extremely low-BAS lists vs. high-BAS lists). At recognition test, participants saw either one or the three critical lures of the lists. Participants in the three-critical-lure condition were expected to increase their monitoring, as they would experience stronger feelings of contrast than the participants in the one-critical-lure condition. Results supported our hypothesis, showing lower false recognition in the three-critical-lure condition than in the one-critical-lure condition. Critically, in the three-critical-lure condition, participants reduced even more false memory when they could also resort to another monitoring strategy (i.e., identify-to-reject). These findings suggest that, in the DRM context, disqualifying monitoring could be guided by experiencing feelings of contrast between different types of words.

Moving forward: Exploring the role of interference on prospective memory deactivation

Recent prospective memory (PM) studies have shown that an intention may be erroneously executed despite no-longer-needed (i.e., commission errors), especially under demanding ongoing activities. In the current study, we examined whether PM deactivation benefits from a retroactive interference mechanism. For this, we set up a procedure in which participants are first asked to perform a PM task which is critically declared finished afterwards. Next, they encoded a new and dissimilar PM intention to accomplish later (Experiment 1) or performed filler tasks with increased working memory difficulty levels (Experiment 2). Lastly, all participants encountered several (but irrelevant) PM cues. Together, our findings provide evidence that the efficiency of the deactivation process can be modulated by encoding novel and dissimilar PM tasks and by the type of processing after intention completion. These findings are discussed in terms of strategic or spontaneous retrieval processes and linked to a retroactive interference mechanism which helps to overwrite or deteriorate the old-PM task representation.

The effect of distinctive facial features on destination memory

Destination memory involves remembering to whom we told information. Low accuracy of this memory is linked to higher self-focus and lower attentional resources allocated to the recipient of the information. The present paper aimed to investigate whether the existence of distinctive features (e.g., tattoos) of destination face would improve destination memory, in a within- (Experiment 1 and 2) and between-participants (Experiment 3) design. In a destination memory task, participants had to tell proverbs to faces that presented a distinctive feature and to other faces that did not. Results showed that a destination memory advantage only occurs when faces with different distinctive features are compared to faces without distinctive features (Experiment 1). These results are in accordance with the existing theoretical framework on destination memory and distinctiveness; highlighting the importance of personal attributes, namely, the distinctiveness of the destination face and the relativity of distinctiveness in destination memory.

From retrospective to prospective memory research: a framework for investigating the deactivation of intentions

The definition of episodic memory has evolved into a multifaceted concept that gathered great attention in several research areas in psychology and neuroscience. Prospective memory (PM), or the ability to remember to perform delayed intentions at a later moment in the future, represents one side of this capacity for which that has been a growing interest. In this review, we examined a counterintuitive finding: PM intentions may persist and affect our behaviour despite successful goal attainment and task completion, which in daily life may be as serious as taking medication twice. This review aims to elucidate the existing knowledge and identify some unresolved questions concerning this specific memory failure. Therefore, this review provides an overview of the uprising research dedicated to both PM omission and commission errors, including an analysis of its definitions, of the current theoretical approaches of PM retrieval, and the main procedures used in this field to offer an integrative perspective on this topic. Finally, the last section is devoted to discussing future directions to test the predictions of our suggested theoretical explanations for PM deactivation. This might be an avenue for research that is likely to extend our understanding of episodic memory's usefulness in everyday life.

No evidence that self-rated negative emotion boosts visual working memory precision

Emotion is assumed to change how people process information by modulating attentional focus. Two recent studies (Spachtholz et al., 2014; Xie & Zhang, 2016) reported that self-reported negative emotion boosted the precision with which information was stored in visual working memory. Here we attempted and failed to replicate these findings across seven studies conducted in four countries. Emotion was induced by presenting emotional images (negative, neutral, and positive) before each trial of a visual working memory task (six experiments) or the images were combined with emotional music during a 3-min induction phase (one experiment) occurring prior to the memory task. In the visual working memory task, participants stored (emotionally neutral) continuously varying colored dots or oriented triangles. At test, the color or orientation of a probed item was reproduced. Although participants reported changes in their emotional state commensurate with the manipulations, six experiments showed substantial evidence against changes in visual working memory precision (and quantity) under negative (and positive) emotion in comparison with neutral, whereas one condition, in one study, showed increased precision under both negative and positive emotion compared with neutral. These results challenge the view that emotion modulates visual working memory quality and quantity. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

How Does Performing Demanding Activities Influence Prospective Memory? A Systematic Review

This paper is the first systematic review on the role of ongoing task load in prospective remembering, which was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA). Forty articles published between 1995 and 2020 were included. They evaluated prospective memory (PM) performance (i.e., the ability to remember to execute a delayed intention) in adult samples aged between 19 and 50 years old when the PM cue appeared under cognitively demanding conditions. The results revealed that people are more likely to fail to remember to perform a delayed intention at the appropriate circumstances or time in the future when their cognitive resources are taxed by demanding ongoing activities. We conclude the review by highlighting that the degree of working memory and executive resources seems to account for some of the discrepant findings and by proposing directions for future research.

Experience Matters

Abstract. The present study tested if word frequency effects on judgments of learning (JOLs) are exclusively due to beliefs or if the direct experience with the items also plays a role. Across four experiments, participants read prompts about the frequency of the words (high/low), which could be congruent/incongruent with the words’ actual frequency. They made pre-study JOLs (except Experiment 1b), immediate JOLs, and completed a recall test. If experience drives the effect, JOLs should be based on actual word frequency rather than the prompts. Results showed higher pre-study JOLs for prompts of high frequency, but higher immediate JOLs for high-frequency words regardless of the prompt, suggesting an effect of direct experience with the words. In Experiments 2 and 3, we manipulated participants’ beliefs, finding a small effect of beliefs on JOLs. We conclude that, regarding word frequency, direct experience with the items seems more relevant than beliefs when making immediate JOLs.

When we must forget: the effect of cognitive load on prospective memory commission errors

Recent studies consistently show that prospective memory (PM) intentions are not always deactivated when no-longer needed and might be erroneously performed upon encountering the once relevant cue - termed PM commission errors. However, empirical evidence on the potential mechanisms that might lead to this kind of memory failure remains mostly unexplored. This study aimed to investigate the influence of the ongoing task demands on PM deactivation of non-performed intentions. Younger adults, except for those in the no-PM condition, were asked to perform a PM task and were then told that the intention was finished. Later, they perform a lexical decision task with some trials containing (irrelevant) PM cues while simultaneously carrying out a counting recall task with two levels of difficulty. The results showed a higher risk of PM commission errors under moderate cognitive load (74%) as compared to the no-load condition (40%). Results also show that commission error risk did not increase in the high-load (54%) compared with the moderate-load condition. Furthermore, comparisons of the ongoign task performance between the no-PM condition and the other conditions with a PM task requirement support that commission errors might arise from a spontaneous PM retrieval. The implications of these findings are discussed within the dual-mechanisms account.

Word frequency effects on judgments of learning: More than just beliefs

Judgments of learning (JOLs) are usually higher for high-frequency words than for low-frequency words, which has been attributed to beliefs about how word frequency affects memory. The main goal of the present study was to explore if identifying word frequency as a relevant cue is necessary for it to affect JOLs. The idea is that for one to base judgments in beliefs of how a variable affects memory, one must first consider that variable. In Experiments 1 and 2, participants studied a list of high- and low-frequency words, made immediate JOLs, and answered questions aimed at identifying the cues used to make those JOLs. The results showed that identifying word frequency as a cue was not necessary for effects on JOLs to occur, suggesting that some participants could not have used beliefs about how word frequency affects memory when making JOLs. In Experiment 3, we measured processing fluency of high- and low-frequency words through a lexical decision task. Participants identified high-frequency words quicker than low-frequency words, suggesting the former to be more fluently processed. In Experiment 4, we explored if response times in a lexical decision task mediated the effect of word frequency on JOLs. Results showed a significant mediation of 8-13%, depending on the analysis technique. We argue that theory-driven processes do not fully account for word frequency effects on JOLs.

Spatial location and emotion modulate voice perception

How do we perceive voices coming from different spatial locations, and how is this affected by emotion? The current study probed the interplay between space and emotion during voice perception. Thirty participants listened to nonverbal vocalizations coming from different locations around the head (left vs. right; front vs. back), and differing in valence (neutral, positive [amusement] or negative [anger]). They were instructed to identify the location of the vocalizations (Experiment 1) and to evaluate their emotional qualities (Experiment 2). Emotion-space interactions were observed, but only in Experiment 1: emotional vocalizations were better localised than neutral ones when they were presented from the back and the right side. In Experiment 2, emotion recognition accuracy was increased for positive vs. negative and neutral vocalizations, and perceived arousal was increased for emotional vs. neutral vocalizations, but this was independent of spatial location. These findings indicate that emotional salience affects how we perceive the spatial location of voices. They additionally suggest that the interaction between spatial ("where") and emotional ("what") properties of the voice differs as a function of task.

Detecting memory performance validity with DETECTS: A computerized performance validity test

Evaluating performance validity is essential in neuropsychological and forensic assessments. Nonetheless, most psychological assessment tests are unable to detect performance validity and other methods must be used for this purpose. A new Performance Validity Test (DETECTS - Memory Performance Validity Test) was developed with several characteristics that enhance test utility. Moreover, precise response time measurement was added to DETECTS. Two groups of participants (normative and simulator group) completed DETECTS and three memory tests from the Wechsler Memory Scale III. Simulators achieved considerably lower scores (hits) and higher response times in DETECTS compared with the normative group. All participants in the normative group were classified correctly and no simulator was classified as having legitimate memory deficits. Thus, DETECTS seems to be a valuable computerized Performance Validity Test with reduced application time and effective cut-off scores as well as high sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive power values. Lastly, response time may be a very useful measure for detecting memory malingering.

Words in larger font are perceived as more important: explaining the belief that font size affects memory

Words presented in larger font size are considered more memorable and rated with higher judgments of learning (JOLs). One explanation for this phenomenon is that people believe that font size affects memory. However, it is not clear why people hold this belief. One alternative is that font size represents importance, with larger fonts implying more relevant information. More important information is judged as more memorable and is, in fact, better remembered. In Experiments 1 and 2 we presented words in small (18 points) and extra-large font (250 points) and found higher JOLs and higher judgments of importance with extra-large fonts. A mediation analysis showed that importance accounted for 21-23% of the effect of font size on JOLs. In Experiment 3, we tested whether processing fluency was higher with the extra-large font. In a lexical decision task, participants were slower at detecting words and non-words with extra-large than small font, which is the opposite of what the processing fluency hypothesis predicts. This result shows that the font-size effect persists even in conditions in which perceived fluency should be lower. In sum, this research explained the belief that font size affects memory because words in larger fonts are considered more important.

Exploring the role of context on the existing evidence for reconsolidation of episodic memory

Recent research has provided evidence for memory modifications when a post-reactivation treatment (e.g., drugs, new learning) interferes with the memory re-stabilisation (reconsolidation) process. This finding contradicts the long-standing consolidation theory and has high practical and theoretical implications. With an object-learning paradigm, it was shown that episodic memory is highly susceptible to interfering material presented after its reactivation [Hupbach, A., Gomez, R., Hardt, O., & Nadel, L. (2007). Reconsolidation of episodic memories: A subtle reminder triggers integration of new information. Learning & Memory, 14, 47-53. doi: 10.1101/lm.365707 ]. The reactivation of a learned list (List 1) before a second learned list (List 2) led to intrusion errors from List 2 when trying to recall List 1, but not vice-versa. Their work has been widely cited and their findings have been explained according to reconsolidation theory. For the first time, we systematically explored the role of retrieval context as an alternative explanation for Hupbach's results. Our results showed that the intrusion effect occurs independently of the retrieval context (Experiment 1). Additionally, even when the intrusion rate probability is increased (i.e., List 1 memory test is performed in the List 2 learning context), the groups that did not reactivate the original list did not commit intrusion errors (Experiment 2). In sum, we found that the intrusion effect critically depends on the presence of reactivation, discarding alternative interpretations of the results.

Associative strength or gist extraction: Which matters when DRM lists have two critical lures?

The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) paradigm is often used in the study of false memories. This paradigm typically uses lists of words associated with one critical lure. The primary objective of our study was to understand the production of false memories using the DRM paradigm when lists of words are associated with two critical lures. Three experiments were performed, and it was observed that the critical lures associated with the first set were significantly more frequently recalled than the critical lures associated with the second set. This result was verified when the words were presented in descending order of association with the critical lure (Experiment 1), when the words of the second set were presented in ascending order of association with the critical lure (Experiment 2), and when all the words in the list had the same associative strength (Experiment 3). Results are explained by the activation/monitoring and fuzzy-trace theories.

Do delayed judgements of learning reduce metamemory illusions? A meta-analysis

Past research has shown that the perceptual characteristics of studied items (e.g., font size) lead to a metamemory illusion, and that delayed judgements of learning (JOLs) are better predictors of memory performance than immediate JOLs. Here, we tested whether delayed JOLs could reduce or eliminate the effect of perceptual characteristics on JOLs and restudy decisions. We adopted a meta-analytic approach and analysed the results of 28 experiments in which participants' studied items were presented in either large or small font. JOLs and, sometimes, restudy decisions were collected either immediately or after a delay. Finally, participants completed a memory test. The results of the meta-analyses confirmed the effect of the font size on JOLs and restudy decisions. The delayed procedures reliably reduced the effect of perceptual characteristics on JOLs, but the effect was still significant after a delay. For restudy decisions, delayed procedures only reduced numerically the effect. Surprisingly, the meta-analysis also showed a very subtle memory advantage for items presented in large font over small font, although no individual study showed a significant difference and the overall effect size was small. One plausible explanation is that after a delay, information about font size is not available for some items, causing a reduction in the effect. Moreover, our results suggest that the dissociation between memory and metamemory reported previously may not be dissociation at all, but a mistmatched effect of font size on memory and metamemory.

Disentangling Working Memory Functioning in Mood States of Bipolar Disorder: A Systematic Review

Working memory (WM) deficits are often reported in patients with Bipolar Disorder (BD). However, it is not clear about the nature of these WM deficits (update or serial order processes) and their association with each BD states (euthymic, mania, and depressive). This review investigated the association between BD patient's states and the functioning of WM components. For this purpose, we carried out a systematic review fulfilling a search in the databases Medline, Scopus, SciELO, and Web of Science using specific terms in the abstracts of the articles that generated 212 outcomes in the restricted period from 2005 to 2016. Twenty-three papers were selected, completely read, and analyzed using PICOS strategy. The mood episodes predicted deficits in different components of WM in BD patients (the phonological loop or visuospatial sketchpad) and were associated with different WM processes (updating and serial recall). Lower cognitive scores persist even in remission of symptoms. This result suggests that WM deficit apparently is stage-independent in BD patients. Furthermore, findings suggest that the neutral point on Hedonic Detector component of WM could be maladjusted by BD.

Elimination of collaborative inhibition effect using the Method of Loci

BACKGROUND

The disruption of retrieval strategies hypothesis (Basden, Basden, Bryner, & Thomas, 1997) has been identified as the main reason for the occurrence of the collaborative inhibition effect. This study aims to test this hypothesis applying the same retrieval strategy to all participants.

METHOD

To accomplish this, we compared nominal and collaborative (pairs) performance in a serial recall task in two conditions: use of own strategy vs. use of the method of loci, in a classic experimental paradigm of collaborative memory.

RESULTS

Results revealed that endowing participants with the same strategy of coding and retrieval of information eliminates the collaborative inhibition effect.

CONCLUSIONS

This result provides evidence for the hypothesis of the retrieval strategies disruption. The method of loci proved to be an effective mnemonic by increasing the amount of recalled information, both in the nominal and collaborative recall, when the information has to be recalled in the order that was presented.

Custos e Benefícios de Recordar em Colaboração: Breve Revisão da Literatura

RESUMO Após anos de pesquisa sobre o funcionamento da memória humana como um processo de armazenamento e recordação individual de informação, surgem cada vez mais estudos focados na compreensão da memória como um processo também vivido em grupo: a memória colaborativa. Nesse sentido, o presente artigo pretendeu, através de uma revisão da literatura, sintetizar algumas das questões mais relevantes do estudo da memória colaborativa. Para tal, apresentamos o paradigma experimental mais usado nesse tipo de estudos, bem como os custos e benefícios que resultam da partilha e recordação de informação em grupo. A redação deste artigo permitiu-nos concluir que, apesar do número crescente de estudos nessa área, ainda existem algumas lacunas, nomeadamente no que se refere à produção de falsas memórias, bem como acerca da real implicação prática do uso de diferentes tarefas de memória.

Always on My Mind? Recognition of Attractive Faces May Not Depend on Attention

Little research has examined what happens to attention and memory as a whole when humans see someone attractive. Hence, we investigated whether attractive stimuli gather more attention and are better remembered than unattractive stimuli. Participants took part in an attention task – in which matrices containing attractive and unattractive male naturalistic photographs were presented to 54 females, and measures of eye-gaze location and fixation duration using an eye-tracker were taken – followed by a recognition task. Eye-gaze was higher for the attractive stimuli compared to unattractive stimuli. Also, attractive photographs produced more hits and false recognitions than unattractive photographs which may indicate that regardless of attention allocation, attractive photographs produce more correct but also more false recognitions. We present an evolutionary explanation for this, as attending to more attractive faces but not always remembering them accurately and differentially compared with unseen attractive faces, may help females secure mates with higher reproductive value.

Modelos Explicativos da Memória Prospectiva: Uma Revisão Teórica

Neste artigo é apresentada uma revisão da literatura sobre os mecanismos cognitivos associados à memória prospectiva, organizados de acordo com a divisão das diferentes fases da recordação prospectiva (i.e., codificação, retenção e recuperação). Inicialmente, é apresentada a diversidade de dados da investigação que sustentam diferentes abordagens explicativas do fenômeno de recuperação de intenções, considerando a natureza automática ou estratégica da memória prospectiva. Em seguida, são salientadas as potenciais explicações sobre os mecanismos presentes durante o intervalo de retenção e na fase de codificação.

The Enhanced Cognitive Interview: Towards a Better Use and Understanding of This Procedure

The Enhanced Cognitive Interview is accepted as one of the most successful techniques for enhancing witness recollection. This type of interview has been studied all over the world (eg, Europe or the USA) and is used by police officers in many different countries (eg, the UK and New Zealand). Nonetheless, it is essential for police officers to understand how, and when, to properly apply this interview. Therefore, we examined the underlying psychological processes involved in this interview, and what research can tells us about the situations and purposes that can benefit from applying it.

Tactual perception: a review of experimental variables and procedures

This paper reviews the literature on tactual perception. Throughout this review, we will highlight some of the most relevant aspects in the touch literature: type of stimuli; type of participants; type of tactile exploration; and finally, the interaction between touch and other senses. Regarding type of stimuli, we will analyse studies with abstract stimuli such as vibrations, with two- and three-dimensional stimuli, and also concrete stimuli, considering the relation between familiar and unfamiliar stimuli and the haptic perception of faces. Under the "type of participants" topic, we separated studies with blind participants, studies with children and adults, and also performed an overview of sex differences in performance. The type of tactile exploration is explored considering conditions of active and passive touch, the relevance of movement in touch and the relation between haptic exploration and time. Finally, interactions between touch and vision, touch and smell and touch and taste are explored in the last topic. The review ends with an overall conclusion on the state of the art for the tactual perception literature. With this work, we intend to present an organised overview of the main variables in touch experiments, compiling aspects reported in the tactual literature, and attempting to provide both a summary of previous findings, and a guide to the design of future works on tactual perception and memory, through a presentation of implications from previous studies.

Paradigma Deese-Roediger-McDermott: efeito da evocação prévia e tipo de tarefa de memória

Pretendeu-se averiguar se a activação dos itens críticos no paradigma de Deese-Roediger-McDermott também ocorreria numa tarefa de completamento. Para analisar a contaminação explícita explorámos a existência de resultados dissociados em função da manipulação do nível de processamento. Na tarefa de completamento, a primação semântica foi estatisticamente superior à primação directa. A ausência do efeito do nível de processamento demonstra que o teste foi de memória implícita. Também avaliámos o impacto de uma tarefa de evocação numa tarefa de memória posterior. Verificámos que a evocação prévia anulou o efeito do nível de processamento na tarefa de reconhecimento. Na tarefa de completamento de inícios de palavras, o incremento de inícios de palavras completados com associados só foi expressivo quando as palavras foram codificadas superficialmente.

A inflação mnésica pela imaginação: Características do fenómeno e processos associados

São inúmeros os estudos sobre a memória humana que têm demonstrado a sua natureza reconstrutiva e deste modo a sua falibilidade. Contudo, a necessidade de explorar factores que suscitem esta natureza reconstrutiva, como a imaginação de episódios, mantém-se. Alguns estudos demonstraram que a imaginação de episódios fictícios (que nunca aconteceram) provoca nos participantes uma tendência para aumentarem a confiança sobre a ocorrência destes episódios. A este fenómeno dá-se o nome de inflação mnésica pela imaginação (IMI). Neste artigo procuramos explicar o que é a inflação mnésica pela imaginação, como tem sido estudada, que características pessoais a potencia, e quais as implicações que as descobertas nesta área têm sobre algumas abordagens psicoterapêuticas. Na parte final do artigo são discutidos os processos cognitivos que parecem estar associados ao fenómeno, como a monitorização da fonte e a familiaridade.

Life review with older women: an intervention to reduce depression and improve autobiographical memory

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

As life expectancy rises worldwide and the population grows older, psychopathology in older adults becomes a significant public health concern and intervention methods acquire renewed importance. The aim of the present study was to assess the efficacy of Life Review as an intervention strategy in working with older women with depressive symptoms, specifically through promotion of the specificity of autobiographical memories.

METHODS

Twenty-two participants were randomly assigned to experimental or control conditions. Intervention consisted of four individual sessions of Life Review, structured along 14 questions aimed at prompting autobiographical memory specificity. Participants in the control condition did not receive intervention.

RESULTS

Results indicated a significant change in the experimental group, appearing as the reduction of depressive symptoms (t(20)=3.58, p<0.05) and an increase in life satisfaction (t(20)=-3.83, p<0.05), as well as a significant increase in the specificity (t(20)=-3.46, p<0.05) and positivity (t(20)=-4.23, p<0.05) of autobiographical memories. All variables reached high effect sizes, with an effect size of r=0.64 regarding depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that Life Review is a valuable tool for use with older adults, and that promotion of specific autobiographical memories is a mechanism through which the strategy attains its effectiveness.

Diversidade de resultados no estudo do transtorno de déficit de atenção e hiperatividade

Com este artigo pretende-se abordar a problemática da diversidade de dados na investigação do Transtorno de Déficit de Atenção e Hiperatividade (TDAH). Apresenta-se uma revisão da literatura centrada na heterogeneidade de conclusões relativas à caracterização do transtorno, à distinção dos subtipos, aos contextos de informação, às diferenças de gênero e à comorbidade. Na tentativa de compreender a disparidade de conclusões, salientam-se potenciais fatores explicativos, nomeadamente a heterogeneidade das amostras, a diversidade de metodologias e de procedimentos de investigação, entre outros. A revisão efetuada baseou-se, majoritariamente, em publicações referenciadas pelas bases de dados PsycInfo e ERIC, e, pontualmente, PubMed e Elsevier Direct.