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Bhavsar NA, Patzer RE, Taber DJ, Ross-Driscoll K, Deierhoi Reed R, Caicedo-Ramirez JC, Gordon EJ, Matsouaka RA, Rogers U, Webster W, Adams A, Kirk AD, McElroy LM. Defining the Need for Causal Inference to Understand the Impact of Social Determinants of Health: A Primer on Behalf of the Consortium for the Holistic Assessment of Risk in Transplantation (CHART). Ann Surg Open 2023; 4:e337. [PMID: 38144885 PMCID: PMC10735082 DOI: 10.1097/as9.0000000000000337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective This study aims to introduce key concepts and methods that inform the design of studies that seek to quantify the causal effect of social determinants of health (SDOH) on access to and outcomes following organ transplant. Background The causal pathways between SDOH and transplant outcomes are poorly understood. This is partially due to the unstandardized and incomplete capture of the complex interactions between patients, their neighborhood environments, the tertiary care system, and structural factors that impact access and outcomes. Designing studies to quantify the causal impact of these factors on transplant access and outcomes requires an understanding of the fundamental concepts of causal inference. Methods We present an overview of fundamental concepts in causal inference, including the potential outcomes framework and direct acyclic graphs. We discuss how to conceptualize SDOH in a causal framework and provide applied examples to illustrate how bias is introduced. Results There is a need for direct measures of SDOH, increased measurement of latent and mediating variables, and multi-level frameworks for research that examine health inequities across multiple health systems to generalize results. We illustrate that biases can arise due to socioeconomic status, race/ethnicity, and incongruencies in language between the patient and clinician. Conclusions Progress towards an equitable transplant system requires establishing causal pathways between psychosocial risk factors, access, and outcomes. This is predicated on accurate and precise quantification of social risk, best facilitated by improved organization of health system data and multicenter efforts to collect and learn from it in ways relevant to specialties and service lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nrupen A. Bhavsar
- From the Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC
| | - Rachel E. Patzer
- Department of Surgery, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA
| | - David J. Taber
- Department of Surgery, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC
| | | | | | | | - Elisa J. Gordon
- Department of Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN
| | - Roland A. Matsouaka
- Department of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC
| | - Ursula Rogers
- Department of Surgery, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC
| | - Wendy Webster
- Department of Surgery, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC
| | - Andrew Adams
- Department of Surgery, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Allan D. Kirk
- Department of Surgery, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC
| | - Lisa M. McElroy
- Department of Surgery, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC
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Daw J, Verdery AM, Ortiz SE, Reed RD, Locke JE, Redfield RR, Kloda D, Liu M, Mentch H, Sawinski D, Aguilar D, Porter ND, Roberts MK, McIntyre K, Reese PP. Social network interventions to reduce race disparities in living kidney donation: Design and rationale of the friends and family of kidney transplant patients study (FFKTPS). Clin Transplant 2023; 37:e15064. [PMID: 37398996 PMCID: PMC10592276 DOI: 10.1111/ctr.15064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Racial/ethnic disparities in living donor kidney transplantation (LDKT) are a persistent challenge. Although nearly all directed donations are from members of patients' social networks, little is known about which social network members take steps toward living kidney donation, which do not, and what mechanisms contribute to racial/ethnic LDKT disparities. METHODS We describe the design and rationale of the Friends and Family of Kidney Transplant Patients Study, a factorial experimental fielding two interventions designed to promote LKD discussions. Participants are kidney transplant candidates at two centers who are interviewed and delivered an intervention by trained center research coordinators. The search intervention advises patients on which social network members are most likely to be LKD contraindication-free; the script intervention advises patients on how to initiate effective LKD discussions. Participants are randomized into four conditions: no intervention, search only, script only, or both search and script. Patients also complete a survey and optionally provide social network member contact information so they can be surveyed directly. This study will seek to enroll 200 transplant candidates. The primary outcome is LDKT receipt. Secondary outcomes include live donor screening and medical evaluations and outcomes. Tertiary outcomes include LDKT self-efficacy, concerns, knowledge, and willingness, measured before and after the interventions. CONCLUSION This study will assess the effectiveness of two interventions to promote LKD and ameliorate Black-White disparities. It will also collect unprecedented information on transplant candidates' social network members, enabling future work to address network member structural barriers to LKD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Daw
- Department of Sociology and Criminology, Pennsylvania State University
| | - Ashton M. Verdery
- Department of Sociology and Criminology, Pennsylvania State University
| | - Selena E. Ortiz
- Department of Health Policy and Administration, Pennsylvania State University
| | | | - Jayme E. Locke
- Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham
| | - Robert R. Redfield
- Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania
| | - David Kloda
- Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham
| | - Michel Liu
- Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania
| | - Heather Mentch
- Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania
| | - Deirdre Sawinski
- Department of Medicine, Weill Cornell Medical College, Cornell University
| | | | - Nathaniel D. Porter
- University Libraries and Department of Sociology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
| | - Mary K. Roberts
- Department of Sociology and Criminology, Pennsylvania State University
| | | | - Peter P. Reese
- Department of Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania
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Shelton BA, Reed RD, MacLennan PA, McWilliams D, Mustian MN, Sawinski D, Kumar V, Ong S, Locke JE. Increasing Obesity Prevalence in the United States End-Stage Renal Disease Population. J Health Sci Educ 2018; 2:151. [PMID: 37538870 PMCID: PMC10398833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
Background Among ESRD patients, obesity may improve dialysis-survival but decreases likelihood of transplantation, and as such, obesity prevalence may directly affect growth of the dialysis population. Objective The objective of this study was to assess BMI trends in the ESRD population as compared to the general population. Materials and Methods Incident adult ESRD patients were identified from the United States Renal Data System from 01/01/1995-12/31/2010 (n=1,458,350). Data from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (n=4,303,471) represented the US population. Trends in BMI, obesity classes I (BMI of 30-34.9), II (BMI of 35-39.9), and III (BMI ≥ 40), were examined by year of dialysis initiation. Trends in BMI slope were compared between the ESRD and US populations using linear regression. Results Mean BMI of ESRD patients in 1995 was 25.2 as compared to 29.4 in 2010, a 16.7% increase, while the US population's mean BMI increased from 25.3 to 27.2, a 7.5% increase. BMI increase among the ESRD population was significantly more rapid than among the US population (β: 0.16, 95% CI: 0.14-0.18, p<0.001). Conclusions and Recommendations Mean BMI among the ESRD population is increasing more rapidly than the US population. Given decreased access to kidney transplantation among ESRD patients with obesity, future research should be directed at controlling healthcare expenditures by identifying strategies to address the obesity epidemic among the US ESRD population.
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Affiliation(s)
- BA Shelton
- Comprehensive Transplant Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA
| | - RD Reed
- Comprehensive Transplant Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA
| | - PA MacLennan
- Comprehensive Transplant Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA
| | - D McWilliams
- Comprehensive Transplant Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA
| | - MN Mustian
- Comprehensive Transplant Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA
| | - D Sawinski
- Renal, Electrolyte and Hypertension Division, University of Pennsylvania, USA
| | - V Kumar
- Comprehensive Transplant Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA
| | - S Ong
- Comprehensive Transplant Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA
| | - JE Locke
- Comprehensive Transplant Institute, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA
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Sawinski D, Shelton BA, Mehta S, Reed RD, MacLennan PA, Gustafson S, Segev DL, Locke JE. Impact of Protease Inhibitor-Based Anti-Retroviral Therapy on Outcomes for HIV+ Kidney Transplant Recipients. Am J Transplant 2017; 17:3114-3122. [PMID: 28696079 DOI: 10.1111/ajt.14419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2017] [Revised: 06/02/2017] [Accepted: 06/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Excellent outcomes have been demonstrated among select HIV-positive kidney transplant (KT) recipients with well-controlled infection, but to date, no national study has explored outcomes among HIV+ KT recipients by antiretroviral therapy (ART) regimen. Intercontinental Marketing Services (IMS) pharmacy fills (1/1/01-10/1/12) were linked with Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients (SRTR) data. A total of 332 recipients with pre- and posttransplantation fills were characterized by ART at the time of transplantation as protease inhibitor (PI) or non-PI-based ART (88 PI vs. 244 non-PI). Cox proportional hazards models were adjusted for recipient and donor characteristics. Comparing recipients by ART regimen, there were no significant differences in age, race, or HCV status. Recipients on PI-based regimens were significantly more likely to have an Estimated Post Transplant Survival (EPTS) score of >20% (70.9% vs. 56.3%, p = 0.02) than those on non-PI regimens. On adjusted analyses, PI-based regimens were associated with a 1.8-fold increased risk of allograft loss (adjusted hazard ratio [aHR] 1.84, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.22-2.77, p = 0.003), with the greatest risk observed in the first posttransplantation year (aHR 4.48, 95% CI 1.75-11.48, p = 0.002), and a 1.9-fold increased risk of death as compared to non-PI regimens (aHR 1.91, 95% CI 1.02-3.59, p = 0.05). These results suggest that whenever possible, recipients should be converted to a non-PI regimen prior to kidney transplantation.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Sawinski
- University of Pennsylvania Comprehensive Transplant Center, Philadelphia, PA
| | - B A Shelton
- University of Alabama at Birmingham Comprehensive Transplant Institute, Birmingham, AL
| | - S Mehta
- University of Alabama at Birmingham Comprehensive Transplant Institute, Birmingham, AL
| | - R D Reed
- University of Alabama at Birmingham Comprehensive Transplant Institute, Birmingham, AL
| | - P A MacLennan
- University of Alabama at Birmingham Comprehensive Transplant Institute, Birmingham, AL
| | - S Gustafson
- Scientific Registry of Transplant Recipients, Minneapolis, MN
| | - D L Segev
- Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD
| | - J E Locke
- University of Alabama at Birmingham Comprehensive Transplant Institute, Birmingham, AL
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Kunte K, Zhang W, Tenger-Trolander A, Palmer DH, Martin A, Reed RD, Mullen SP, Kronforst MR. doublesex is a mimicry supergene. Nature 2014; 507:229-32. [PMID: 24598547 DOI: 10.1038/nature13112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 228] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2013] [Accepted: 01/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
One of the most striking examples of sexual dimorphism is sex-limited mimicry in butterflies, a phenomenon in which one sex--usually the female--mimics a toxic model species, whereas the other sex displays a different wing pattern. Sex-limited mimicry is phylogenetically widespread in the swallowtail butterfly genus Papilio, in which it is often associated with female mimetic polymorphism. In multiple polymorphic species, the entire wing pattern phenotype is controlled by a single Mendelian 'supergene'. Although theoretical work has explored the evolutionary dynamics of supergene mimicry, there are almost no empirical data that address the critical issue of what a mimicry supergene actually is at a functional level. Using an integrative approach combining genetic and association mapping, transcriptome and genome sequencing, and gene expression analyses, we show that a single gene, doublesex, controls supergene mimicry in Papilio polytes. This is in contrast to the long-held view that supergenes are likely to be controlled by a tightly linked cluster of loci. Analysis of gene expression and DNA sequence variation indicates that isoform expression differences contribute to the functional differences between dsx mimicry alleles, and protein sequence evolution may also have a role. Our results combine elements from different hypotheses for the identity of supergenes, showing that a single gene can switch the entire wing pattern among mimicry phenotypes but may require multiple, tightly linked mutations to do so.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Kunte
- 1] National Center for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bengaluru 560065, India [2]
| | - W Zhang
- 1] Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA [2]
| | - A Tenger-Trolander
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
| | - D H Palmer
- Committee on Evolutionary Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
| | - A Martin
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
| | - R D Reed
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
| | - S P Mullen
- Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts 02215, USA
| | - M R Kronforst
- 1] Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA [2] Committee on Evolutionary Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, USA
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Caterino MS, Reed RD, Kuo MM, Sperling FA. A partitioned likelihood analysis of swallowtail butterfly phylogeny (Lepidoptera:Papilionidae). Syst Biol 2001; 50:106-27. [PMID: 12116588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Although it is widely agreed that data from multiple sources are necessary to confidently resolve phylogenetic relationships, procedures for accommodating and incorporating heterogeneity in such data remain underdeveloped. We explored the use of partitioned, model-based analyses of heterogeneous molecular data in the context of a phylogenetic study of swallowtail butterflies (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae). Despite substantial basic and applied study, phylogenetic relationships among the major lineages of this prominent group remain contentious. We sequenced 3.3 kb of mitochondrial and nuclear DNA (2.3 kb of cytochrome oxidase I and II and 1.0 kb of elongation factor-1 alpha, respectively) from 22 swallowtails, including representatives of Baroniinae, Parnassiinae, and Papilioninae, and from several moth and butterfly outgroups. Using parsimony, we encountered considerable difficulty in resolving the deepest splits among these taxa. We therefore chose two outgroups with undisputed relationships to each other and to Papilionidae and undertook detailed likelihood analyses of alternative topologies. Following from previous studies that have demonstrated substantial heterogeneity in the evolutionary dynamics among process partitions of these genes, we estimated evolutionary parameters separately for gene-based and codon-based partitions. These values were then used as the basis for examining the likelihoods of possible resolutions and rootings under several partitioned and unpartitioned likelihood models. Partitioned models gave markedly better fits to the data than did unpartitioned models and supported different topologies. However, the most likely topology varied from model to model. The most likely ingroup topology under the best-fitting, six-partition GTR + gamma model favors a paraphyletic Parnassiinae. However, when examining the likelihoods of alternative rootings of this tree relative to rootings of the classical hypothesis, two rootings of the latter emerge as most likely. Of these two, the most likely rooting is within the Papilioninae, although a rooting between Baronia and the remaining Papilionidae is only nonsignificantly less likely.
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Affiliation(s)
- M S Caterino
- Division of Insect Biology, 201 Wellman Hall, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-3112, USA.
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7
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Abstract
In this study, we explored how the concept of the process partition may be applied to phylogenetic analysis. Sequence data were gathered from 23 species and subspecies of the swallowtail butterfly genus Papilio, as well as from two outgroup species from the genera Eurytides and Pachliopta. Sequence data consisted of 1,010 bp of the nuclear protein-coding gene elongation factor-1 alpha (EF-1 alpha) as well as the entire sequences (a total of 2,211 bp) of the mitochondrial protein-coding genes cytochrome oxidase I and cytochrome oxidase II (COI and COII). In order to examine the interaction between the nuclear and mitochondrial partitions in a combined analysis, we used a method of visualizing branch support as a function of partition weight ratios. We demonstrated how this method may be used to diagnose error at different levels of a tree in a combined maximum-parsimony analysis. Further, we assessed patterns of evolution within and between subsets of the data by implementing a multipartition maximum-likelihood model to estimate evolutionary parameters for various putative process partitions. COI third positions have an estimated average substitution rate more than 15 times that of EF-1 alpha, while COII third positions have an estimated average substitution rate more than 22 times that of EF-1 alpha. Ultimately, we found that although the mitochondrial and nuclear data were not significantly incongruent, homoplasy in the fast-evolving mitochondrial data confounded the resolution of basal relationships in the combined unweighted parsimony analysis despite the fact that there was relatively strong support for the relationships in the nuclear data. We conclude that there may be shortcomings to the methods of "total evidence" and "conditional combination" because they may fail to detect or accommodate the type of confounding bias we found in our data.
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Affiliation(s)
- R D Reed
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, USA.
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Reed RD. A standards of care plan in the postanesthesia care unit. J Post Anesth Nurs 1991; 6:255-64. [PMID: 1865379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Every patient is entitled to consistent, high-quality, individualized care. The PACU staff and former director of staff education at Southwestern Vermont Medical Center developed a documentation tool to achieve this end. The primary focus of the tool is on standards of care with an emphasis on outcome standards. Every patient received and cared for in the PACU is evaluated in terms of these outcome standards. If for any reason an outcome standard is not achieved, appropriate action is taken. The four-page bifold tool incorporates the nursing process. Potential nursing diagnostic problems are described and assessment and intervention data are integrated accordingly. The plan is further individualized vis à vis nursing progress notes. The tool has been in use for well over 1 year, and quality assurance studies demonstrate that outcome standards achieved and not achieved are consistently documented. The PACU staff believe this tool has enhanced professional practice and improved use of the nursing process and standards of care.
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Reed RD, Mikesell GW. Radiometric monitoring of exposure-site temperature during laser irradiation. Phys Med Biol 1981; 26:175-80. [PMID: 7243868 DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/26/1/019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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12
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Reed RD, Pace N. Energy status and oxidation-reduction status in rat liver at high altitude (3.8 km). Aviat Space Environ Med 1980; 51:595-602. [PMID: 7417122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Adult male rats were exposed to 3.8-km altitude for intervals ranging from 1 h-60 d. Liver samples were taken under light ether anesthesia and were examined by enzymatic analyses. Within 1-6 h of hypoxic exposure, ATP levels decreased while ADP and AMP levels increased, producing a fall in calculated ATP/ADP and adenylate charge ratios. Concurrently, lactate/pyruvate and alpha-glycerophosphate/dihydroxyacetone phosphate ratios increased markedly. Direct measurements of cellular pyridine nucleotides indicated increased NADH/NAD and NADPH/NADP ratios. Levels of total adenosine phosphate and pyridine nucleotides decreased in a significant accompanying response. Many metabolite levels and calculated ratios returned to near-normal values within 1 week of exposure, indicating secondary intracellular adjustments to hypoxic stress; however, persistence of that stress is reflected in lactate conentrations and both substrate redox ratios. Results support and explore concepts that increased oxidation-reduction status and decreased energy status are primary events during hypoxia.
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Reed RD, Pace N. Energy status and oxidation-reduction status in rat liver at high altitude (3.8 km). Aviat Space Environ Med 1980; 51:448-53. [PMID: 7387568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Adult male rats were exposed to 3.8-km altitude for intervals ranging from 1 h-60 d. Liver samples were taken under light ether anesthesia and were examined by enzymatic analyses. Within 1-6 h of hypoxic exposure, ATP levels decreased while ADP and AMP levels increased, producing a fall in calculated ATP/ADP and adenylate charge ratios. Concurrently, lactate/pyruvate and alpha-glycerophosphate/dihydroxyacetone phosphate ratios increased markedly. Direct measurements of cellular pyridine nucleotides indicated increased NADH/NAD and NADPH/NADP ratios. Levels of total adenosine phosphates and pyridine nucleotides decreased in a significant accompanying response. Many metabolite levels and calculated ratios returned to near-normal values within 1 week of exposure, indicating secondary intracellular adjustments to hypoxic stress; however, persistence of that stress is reflected in lactate concentrations and both substrate redox ratios. Results support and explore concepts that increased oxidation-reduction status and decreased energy status are primary events during hypoxia.
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Chen R, Henderson D, Reed RD. Cell model for quantum fluids. III. Compressional waves in liquid hydrogen. Aust J Chem 1965. [DOI: 10.1071/ch9651309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The velocity of sound is calculated for
each of the isotopic forms of liquid hydrogen using the quantum cell model. The
velocity of sound increases as the pressure increases and decreases as the
temperature increases. Also the reduced velocity of sound decreases as the
value of the quantum parameter, Λ*, increases. In addition, the
thermodynamic properties of liquid hydrogen compressed by a shock wave are
calculated.
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