1
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Aubin CA, Heisser RH, Peretz O, Timko J, Lo J, Helbling EF, Sobhani S, Gat AD, Shepherd RF. Powerful, soft combustion actuators for insect-scale robots. Science 2023; 381:1212-1217. [PMID: 37708265 DOI: 10.1126/science.adg5067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
Insects perform feats of strength and endurance that belie their small stature. Insect-scale robots-although subject to the same scaling laws-demonstrate reduced performance because existing microactuator technologies are driven by low-energy density power sources and produce small forces and/or displacements. The use of high-energy density chemical fuels to power small, soft actuators represents a possible solution. We demonstrate a 325-milligram soft combustion microactuator that can achieve displacements of 140%, operate at frequencies >100 hertz, and generate forces >9.5 newtons. With these actuators, we powered an insect-scale quadrupedal robot, which demonstrated a variety of gait patterns, directional control, and a payload capacity 22 times its body weight. These features enabled locomotion through uneven terrain and over obstacles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cameron A Aubin
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Ronald H Heisser
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Ofek Peretz
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
| | - Julia Timko
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Jacqueline Lo
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - E Farrell Helbling
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Sadaf Sobhani
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Amir D Gat
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
| | - Robert F Shepherd
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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2
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Bai H, Kim YS, Shepherd RF. Autonomous self-healing optical sensors for damage intelligent soft-bodied systems. Sci Adv 2022; 8:eabq2104. [PMID: 36475793 PMCID: PMC9728961 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abq2104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
We introduce damage intelligent soft-bodied systems via a network of self-healing light guides for dynamic sensing (SHeaLDS). Exploiting the intrinsic damage resilience of light propagation in an optical waveguide, in combination with a tough, transparent, and autonomously self-healing polyurethane urea elastomer, SHeaLDS enables damage resilient and intelligent robots by self-healing cuts as well as detecting this damage and controlling the robot's actions accordingly. With optimized material and structural design for hyperelastic deformation of the robot and autonomous self-healing capacity, SHeaLDS provides reliable dynamic sensing at large strains (ε = 140%) with no drift or hysteresis, is resistant to punctures, and self-heals from cuts at room temperature with no external intervention. As a demonstration of utility, a soft quadruped protected by SHeaLDS detects and self-heals from extreme damage (e.g., six cuts on one leg) in 1 min and monitors and adapts its gait based on the damage condition autonomously through feedback control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hedan Bai
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Young Seong Kim
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Robert F. Shepherd
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
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3
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Barreiros JA, Xu A, Pugach S, Iyengar N, Troxell G, Cornwell A, Hong S, Selman B, Shepherd RF. Haptic perception using optoelectronic robotic flesh for embodied artificially intelligent agents. Sci Robot 2022; 7:eabi6745. [PMID: 35675451 DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.abi6745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Flesh encodes a variety of haptic information including deformation, temperature, vibration, and damage stimuli using a multisensory array of mechanoreceptors distributed on the surface of the human body. Currently, soft sensors are capable of detecting some haptic stimuli, but whole-body multimodal perception at scales similar to a human adult (surface area ~17,000 square centimeters) is still a challenge in artificially intelligent agents due to the lack of encoding. This encoding is needed to reduce the wiring required to send the vast amount of information transmitted to the processor. We created a robotic flesh that could be further developed for use in these agents. This engineered flesh is an optical, elastomeric matrix "innervated" with stretchable lightguides that encodes haptic stimuli into light: temperature into wavelength due to thermochromic dyes and forces into intensity due to mechanical deformation. By exploiting the optical properties of the constitutive materials and using machine learning, we infer spatiotemporal, haptic information from light that is read by an image sensor. We demonstrate the capabilities of our system in various assemblies to estimate temperature, contact location, normal and shear force, gestures, and damage from temporal snapshots of light coming from the entire haptic sensor with errors <5%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jose A Barreiros
- Department of Systems Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Artemis Xu
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Sofya Pugach
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Narahari Iyengar
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Graeme Troxell
- Department of Systems Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Alexander Cornwell
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Samantha Hong
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Bart Selman
- Department of Computer Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Robert F Shepherd
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
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4
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Bakarich SE, Miller R, Mrozek RA, O'Neill MR, Slipher GA, Shepherd RF. Pump Up the Jam: Granular Media as a Quasi-Hydraulic Fluid for Independent Control Over Isometric and Isotonic Actuation. Adv Sci (Weinh) 2022; 9:e2104402. [PMID: 35343110 PMCID: PMC9131430 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202104402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 02/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Elastomer-granule composites have been used to switch between soft and stiff states by applying negative pressure differentials that cause the membrane to squeeze the internal grains, inducing dilation and jamming. Applications of this phenomenon have ranged from universal gripping to adaptive mobility. Previously, the combination of this jamming phenomenon with the ability to transport grains across multiple soft actuators for shape morphing has not yet been demonstrated. In this paper, the authors demonstrate the use of hollow glass spheres as granular media that functions as a jammable "quasi-hydraulic" fluid in a fluidic elastomeric actuator that better mimics a key featur of animal musculature: independent control over i) isotonic actuation for motion; and ii) isometric actuation for stiffening without shape change. To best implement the quasi-hydraulic fluid, the authors design and build a fluidic device. Leveraging this combination of physical properties creates a new option for fluidic actuation that allows higher specific stiffness actuators using lower volumetric flow rates in addition to independent control over shape and stiffness. These features are showcased in a robotic catcher's mitt by stiffening the fluid in the glove's open configuration for catching, unjamming the media, then pumping additional fluid to the mitt to inflate and grasp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon E. Bakarich
- Autonomous Systems DivisionDEVCOM U.S. Army Research LaboratoryAberdeen Proving GroundMD21005USA
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace EngineeringCornell University124 Hoy RoadIthacaNY14850USA
| | - Rachel Miller
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringCornell University214 Bard HallIthacaNY14850USA
| | - Randy A. Mrozek
- Weapons and Materials Research DirectorateDEVCOM U.S. Army Research LaboratoryAberdeen Proving GroundMD21005USA
| | - Maura R. O'Neill
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace EngineeringCornell University124 Hoy RoadIthacaNY14850USA
| | - Geoffrey A. Slipher
- Autonomous Systems DivisionDEVCOM U.S. Army Research LaboratoryAberdeen Proving GroundMD21005USA
| | - Robert F. Shepherd
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace EngineeringCornell University124 Hoy RoadIthacaNY14850USA
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5
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Liu Z, Pan W, Wang K, Matia Y, Xu A, Barreiros JA, Darkes-Burkey C, Giannelis EP, Mengüç Y, Shepherd RF, Wallin TJ. Acoustophoretic Liquefaction for 3D Printing Ultrahigh-Viscosity Nanoparticle Suspensions. Adv Mater 2022; 34:e2106183. [PMID: 34601774 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202106183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2021] [Revised: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
An acoustic liquefaction approach to enhance the flow of yield stress fluids during Digital Light Processing (DLP)-based 3D printing is reported. This enhanced flow enables processing of ultrahigh-viscosity resins (μapp > 3700 Pa s at shear rates γ ˙ = 0.01 s-1 ) based on silica particles in a silicone photopolymer. Numerical simulations of the acousto-mechanical coupling in the DLP resin feed system at different agitation frequencies predict local resin flow velocities exceeding 100 mm s-1 at acoustic transduction frequencies of 110 s-1 . Under these conditions, highly loaded particle suspensions (weight fractions, ϕ = 0.23) can be printed successfully in complex geometries. Such mechanically reinforced composites possess a tensile toughness 2000% greater than the neat photopolymer. Beyond an increase in processible viscosities, acoustophoretic liquefaction DLP (AL-DLP) creates a transient reduction in apparent viscosity that promotes resin recirculation and decreases viscous adhesion. As a result, acoustophoretic liquefaction Digital Light Processing (AL-DLP) improves the printed feature resolution by more than 25%, increases printable object sizes by over 50 times, and can build parts >3 × faster when compared to conventional methodologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Liu
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Wenyang Pan
- Facebook Reality Labs Research, Redmond, WA, 98052, USA
| | - Kaiyang Wang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Yoav Matia
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Artemis Xu
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Jose A Barreiros
- Department of Systems Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Cameron Darkes-Burkey
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Emmanuel P Giannelis
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Yiğit Mengüç
- Facebook Reality Labs Research, Redmond, WA, 98052, USA
- Collaborative Robotics and Intelligent Systems (CoRIS) Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 97331, USA
| | - Robert F Shepherd
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
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6
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Rothemund
- Robotic Materials Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Yoonho Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Ronald H Heisser
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Xuanhe Zhao
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Robert F Shepherd
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Christoph Keplinger
- Robotic Materials Department, Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems, Stuttgart, Germany.
- Paul M. Rady Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA.
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA.
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7
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Heisser RH, Aubin CA, Peretz O, Kincaid N, An HS, Fisher EM, Sobhani S, Pepiot P, Gat AD, Shepherd RF. Valveless microliter combustion for densely packed arrays of powerful soft actuators. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2106553118. [PMID: 34556574 PMCID: PMC8488685 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2106553118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Existing tactile stimulation technologies powered by small actuators offer low-resolution stimuli compared to the enormous mechanoreceptor density of human skin. Arrays of soft pneumatic actuators initially show promise as small-resolution (1- to 3-mm diameter), highly conformable tactile display strategies yet ultimately fail because of their need for valves bulkier than the actuators themselves. In this paper, we demonstrate an array of individually addressable, soft fluidic actuators that operate without electromechanical valves. We achieve this by using microscale combustion and localized thermal flame quenching. Precisely, liquid metal electrodes produce sparks to ignite fuel lean methane-oxygen mixtures in a 5-mm diameter, 2-mm tall silicone cylinder. The exothermic reaction quickly pressurizes the cylinder, displacing a silicone membrane up to 6 mm in under 1 ms. This device has an estimated free-inflation instantaneous stroke power of 3 W. The maximum reported operational frequency of these cylinders is 1.2 kHz with average displacements of ∼100 µm. We demonstrate that, at these small scales, the wall-quenching flame behavior also allows operation of a 3 × 3 array of 3-mm diameter cylinders with 4-mm pitch. Though we primarily present our device as a tactile display technology, it is a platform microactuator technology with application beyond this one.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald H Heisser
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
| | - Cameron A Aubin
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
| | - Ofek Peretz
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
| | - Nicholas Kincaid
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
| | - Hyeon Seok An
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
| | - Elizabeth M Fisher
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
| | - Sadaf Sobhani
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
| | - Perrine Pepiot
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853
| | - Amir D Gat
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
| | - Robert F Shepherd
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853;
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8
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Li S, Bai H, Liu Z, Zhang X, Huang C, Wiesner LW, Silberstein M, Shepherd RF. Digital light processing of liquid crystal elastomers for self-sensing artificial muscles. Sci Adv 2021; 7:7/30/eabg3677. [PMID: 34301600 PMCID: PMC8302124 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abg3677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Artificial muscles based on stimuli-responsive polymers usually exhibit mechanical compliance, versatility, and high power-to-weight ratio, showing great promise to potentially replace conventional rigid motors for next-generation soft robots, wearable electronics, and biomedical devices. In particular, thermomechanical liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) constitute artificial muscle-like actuators that can be remotely triggered for large stroke, fast response, and highly repeatable actuations. Here, we introduce a digital light processing (DLP)-based additive manufacturing approach that automatically shear aligns mesogenic oligomers, layer-by-layer, to achieve high orientational order in the photocrosslinked structures; this ordering yields high specific work capacity (63 J kg-1) and energy density (0.18 MJ m-3). We demonstrate actuators composed of these DLP printed LCEs' applications in soft robotics, such as reversible grasping, untethered crawling, and weightlifting. Furthermore, we present an LCE self-sensing system that exploits thermally induced optical transition as an intrinsic option toward feedback control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Li
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Hedan Bai
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Zheng Liu
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Xinyue Zhang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Chuqi Huang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Lennard W Wiesner
- Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Meredith Silberstein
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Robert F Shepherd
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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9
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Mishra AK, Pan W, Giannelis EP, Shepherd RF, Wallin TJ. Making bioinspired 3D-printed autonomic perspiring hydrogel actuators. Nat Protoc 2021; 16:2068-2087. [PMID: 33627845 DOI: 10.1038/s41596-020-00484-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
To mitigate the adverse effects of elevated temperatures, conventional rigid devices use bulky radiators, heat sinks and fans to dissipate heat from sensitive components. Unfortunately, these thermoregulation strategies are incompatible with soft robots, a growing field of technology that, like biology, builds compliant and highly deformable bodies from soft materials to enable functional adaptability. Here, we design fluidic elastomer actuators that autonomically perspire at elevated temperatures. This strategy incurs operational penalties (i.e., decreased actuation efficiency and loss of hydraulic fluid) but provides for thermoregulation in soft systems. In this bioinspired approach, we 3D-print finger-like actuators from smart gels with embedded micropores that autonomically dilate and contract in response to temperature. During high-temperature operation, the internal hydraulic fluid flows through the dilated pores, absorbs heat and vaporizes. Upon cooling, the pores contract to restrict fluid loss and restore operation. To assess the thermoregulatory performance, this protocol uses non-invasive thermography to measure the local temperatures of the robot under varied conditions. A mathematical model based on Newton's law of cooling quantifies the cooling performance and enables comparison between competing designs. Fabrication of the sweating actuator usually takes 3-6 h, depending on size, and can provide >100 W/kg of additional cooling capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anand Kumar Mishra
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Wenyang Pan
- Facebook Reality Labs, Redmond, WA, USA.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Emmanuel P Giannelis
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Robert F Shepherd
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - Thomas J Wallin
- Facebook Reality Labs, Redmond, WA, USA. .,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA.
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10
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Mishra AK, Wallin TJ, Pan W, Xu P, Wang K, Giannelis EP, Mazzolai B, Shepherd RF. Autonomic perspiration in 3D-printed hydrogel actuators. Sci Robot 2021; 5:5/38/eaaz3918. [PMID: 33022596 DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.aaz3918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Accepted: 12/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In both biological and engineered systems, functioning at peak power output for prolonged periods of time requires thermoregulation. Here, we report a soft hydrogel-based actuator that can maintain stable body temperatures via autonomic perspiration. Using multimaterial stereolithography, we three-dimensionally print finger-like fluidic elastomer actuators having a poly-N-isopropylacrylamide (PNIPAm) body capped with a microporous (~200 micrometers) polyacrylamide (PAAm) dorsal layer. The chemomechanical response of these hydrogel materials is such that, at low temperatures (<30°C), the pores are sufficiently closed to allow for pressurization and actuation, whereas at elevated temperatures (>30°C), the pores dilate to enable localized perspiration in the hydraulic actuator. Such sweating actuators exhibit a 600% enhancement in cooling rate (i.e., 39.1°C minute-1) over similar non-sweating devices. Combining multiple finger actuators into a single device yields soft robotic grippers capable of both mechanically and thermally manipulating various heated objects. The measured thermoregulatory performance of these sweating actuators (~107 watts kilogram-1) greatly exceeds the evaporative cooling capacity found in the best animal systems (~35 watts kilogram-1) at the cost of a temporary decrease in actuation efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anand K Mishra
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Thomas J Wallin
- Facebook Reality Labs, Redmond, WA 98052, USA.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Wenyang Pan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Patricia Xu
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Kaiyang Wang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Emmanuel P Giannelis
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Barbara Mazzolai
- Center for Micro-Biorobotics, Istituto Italiano di Technologia, Pontedera, PI 56025 Pisa, Italy
| | - Robert F Shepherd
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA.
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11
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12
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Bai H, Li S, Barreiros J, Tu Y, Pollock CR, Shepherd RF. Stretchable distributed fiber-optic sensors. Science 2020; 370:848-852. [DOI: 10.1126/science.aba5504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2019] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hedan Bai
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Shuo Li
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Jose Barreiros
- Program of Systems Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Yaqi Tu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Clifford R. Pollock
- School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Robert F. Shepherd
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
- Program of Systems Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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13
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Wang K, Pan W, Liu Z, Wallin TJ, van Dover G, Li S, Giannelis EP, Menguc Y, Shepherd RF. 3D Printing of Viscoelastic Suspensions via Digital Light Synthesis for Tough Nanoparticle-Elastomer Composites. Adv Mater 2020; 32:e2001646. [PMID: 32419251 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202001646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2020] [Revised: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The rheological parameters required to print viscoelastic nanoparticle suspensions toward tough elastomers via Digital Light Synthesis (DLS) (an inverted projection stereolithography system) are reported. With a model material of functionalized silica nanoparticles suspended in a poly(dimethylsiloxane) matrix, the rheological-parameters-guided DLS can print structures seven times tougher than those formed from the neat polymers. The large yield stress and high viscosity associated with these high concentration nanoparticle suspensions, however, may prevent pressure-driven flow, a mechanism essential to stereolithography-based printing. Thus, to better predict and evaluate the printability of high concentration nanoparticle suspensions, the boundary of rheological properties compatible with DLS is defined using a non-dimensional Peclet number (Pe). Based on the proposed analysis of rheological parameters, the border of printability at standard temperature and pressure (STP) is established by resin with a silica nanoparticle mass fraction (ϕsilica ) of 0.15. Above this concentration, nanoparticle suspensions have Pe > 1 and are not printable. Beyond STP, the printability can be further extended to ϕsilica = 0.20 via a heating module with lower shear rate to reduce the Pe < 1. The printed rubber possesses even higher toughness (Γ ≈ 155 kJ m-3 ), which is 40% higher over that of ϕsilica = 0.15.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaiyang Wang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Wenyang Pan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Zheng Liu
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | | | | | - Shuo Li
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Emmanuel P Giannelis
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | | | - Robert F Shepherd
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
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14
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Tan YJ, Godaba H, Chen G, Tan STM, Wan G, Li G, Lee PM, Cai Y, Li S, Shepherd RF, Ho JS, Tee BCK. A transparent, self-healing and high-κ dielectric for low-field-emission stretchable optoelectronics. Nat Mater 2020; 19:182-188. [PMID: 31844282 DOI: 10.1038/s41563-019-0548-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 10/30/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Stretchable optoelectronic materials are essential for applications in wearable electronics, human-machine interfaces and soft robots. However, intrinsically stretchable optoelectronic devices such as light-emitting capacitors usually require high driving alternating voltages and excitation frequencies to achieve sufficient luminance in ambient lighting conditions. Here, we present a healable, low-field illuminating optoelectronic stretchable (HELIOS) device by introducing a transparent, high permittivity polymeric dielectric material. The HELIOS device turns on at an alternating voltage of 23 V and a frequency below 1 kHz, safe operating conditions for human-machine interactions. We achieved a brightness of 1,460 cd m-2 at 2.5 V µm-1 with stable illumination demonstrated up to a maximum of 800% strain. The materials also self-healed mechanically and electronically from punctures or when severed. We further demonstrate various HELIOS light-emitting capacitor devices in environment sensing using optical feedback. Moreover, our devices can be powered wirelessly, potentially enabling applications for untethered damage-resilient soft robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Jun Tan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Institute of Innovation in Health Technology (iHealthtech), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Hareesh Godaba
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Institute of Innovation in Health Technology (iHealthtech), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Ge Chen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Siew Ting Melissa Tan
- Institute of Innovation in Health Technology (iHealthtech), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Guanxiang Wan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Guojingxian Li
- Institute of Innovation in Health Technology (iHealthtech), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Pui Mun Lee
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Yongqing Cai
- Institute Of High Performance Computing, Agency for Science Technology and Research, Singapore, Singapore
- Joint Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Applied Physics and Materials Engineering, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, Macau, China
| | - Si Li
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Robert F Shepherd
- Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
| | - John S Ho
- Institute of Innovation in Health Technology (iHealthtech), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- N.1 Institute of Health, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Benjamin C K Tee
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
- Institute of Innovation in Health Technology (iHealthtech), National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
- Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
- N.1 Institute of Health, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore.
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, Agency for Science Technology and Research, Singapore, Singapore.
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15
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Li S, Bai H, Shepherd RF, Zhao H. Bio‐inspired Design and Additive Manufacturing of Soft Materials, Machines, Robots, and Haptic Interfaces. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019; 58:11182-11204. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201813402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Li
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering Cornell University USA
| | - Hedan Bai
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Cornell University USA
| | - Robert F. Shepherd
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering Cornell University USA
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Cornell University USA
| | - Huichan Zhao
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Tsinghua University China
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16
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Li S, Bai H, Shepherd RF, Zhao H. Bioinspiriertes Design und additive Fertigung von weichen Materialien, Maschinen, Robotern und haptischen Schnittstellen. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201813402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Li
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering; Cornell University; USA
| | - Hedan Bai
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering; Cornell University; USA
| | - Robert F. Shepherd
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering; Cornell University; USA
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering; Cornell University; USA
| | - Huichan Zhao
- Department of Mechanical Engineering; Tsinghua University; China
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17
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Li S, Tu Y, Bai H, Hibi Y, Wiesner LW, Pan W, Wang K, Giannelis EP, Shepherd RF. Simple Synthesis of Elastomeric Photomechanical Switches That Self-Heal. Macromol Rapid Commun 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/marc.201970009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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18
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Li S, Tu Y, Bai H, Hibi Y, Wiesner LW, Pan W, Wang K, Giannelis EP, Shepherd RF. Simple Synthesis of Elastomeric Photomechanical Switches That Self-Heal. Macromol Rapid Commun 2019; 40:e1800815. [PMID: 30600569 DOI: 10.1002/marc.201800815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Revised: 12/10/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
This article introduces a simple two-stage method to synthesize and program a photomechanical elastomer (PME) for light-driven artificial muscle-like actuations in soft robotics. First, photochromic azobenzene molecules are covalently attached to a polyurethane backbone via a two-part step-growth polymerization. Next, mechanical alignment is applied to induce anisotropic deformations in the PME-actuating films. Cross-linked through dynamic hydrogen bonds, the PMEs also possess autonomic self-healing properties without external energy input. This self-healing allows for a single alignment step of the PME film and subsequent "cut and paste" assembly for multi-axis actuation of a self-folded soft-robotic gripper from a single degree of freedom optical input.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Li
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
| | - Yaqi Tu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
| | - Hedan Bai
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
| | - Yusuke Hibi
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
| | - Lennard W Wiesner
- Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Wenyang Pan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
| | - Kaiyang Wang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
| | - Emmanuel P Giannelis
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
| | - Robert F Shepherd
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA.,Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14850, USA
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19
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Pan W, Wallin TJ, Odent J, Yip MC, Mosadegh B, Shepherd RF, Giannelis EP. Optical stereolithography of antifouling zwitterionic hydrogels. J Mater Chem B 2019; 7:2855-2864. [DOI: 10.1039/c9tb00278b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
This paper reports the rapid 3D printing of tough (toughness, UT, up to 141.6 kJ m−3), highly solvated (ϕwater ∼ 60 v/o), and antifouling hybrid hydrogels for potential uses in biomedical, smart materials, and sensor applications, using a zwitterionic photochemistry compatible with stereolithography (SLA).
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenyang Pan
- Materials Science & Engineering
- Cornell University
- Ithaca
- USA
| | | | - Jérémy Odent
- Materials Science & Engineering
- Cornell University
- Ithaca
- USA
| | - Mighten C. Yip
- Dalio Institute of Cardiovascular Imaging
- New York-Presbyterian Hospital and Weill Cornell Medicine
- New York
- USA
- Department of Radiology
| | - Bobak Mosadegh
- Dalio Institute of Cardiovascular Imaging
- New York-Presbyterian Hospital and Weill Cornell Medicine
- New York
- USA
- Department of Radiology
| | - Robert F. Shepherd
- Sibley School of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering
- Cornell University
- Ithaca
- USA
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20
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Robinson SS, Aubin CA, Wallin TJ, Gharaie S, Xu PA, Wang K, Dunham SN, Mosadegh B, Shepherd RF. Stereolithography for Personalized Left Atrial Appendage Occluders. Adv Mater Technol 2018; 3:1800233. [PMID: 31803824 PMCID: PMC6892588 DOI: 10.1002/admt.201800233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Advancements in 3D additive manufacturing have spurred the development of effective patient-specific medical devices. Prior applications are limited to hard materials, however, with few implementations of soft devices that better match the properties of natural tissue. This paper introduces a rapid, low cost, and scalable process for fabricating soft, personalized medical implants via stereolithography of elastomeric polyurethane resin. The effectiveness of this approach is demonstrated by designing and manufacturing patient-specific endocardial implants. These devices occlude the left atrial appendage, a complex structure within the heart prone to blood clot formation in patients with atrial fibrillation. Existing occluders permit residual blood flow and can damage neighboring tissues. Here, the robust mechanical properties of the hollow, printed geometries are characterized and stable device anchoring through in vitro benchtop testing is confirmed. The soft, patient-specific devices outperform non-patient-specific devices in embolism and occlusion experiments, as well as in computational fluid dynamics simulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanlin S Robinson
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Cameron A Aubin
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Thomas J Wallin
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Saleh Gharaie
- Dalio Institute of Cardiovascular Imaging, Department of Radiology, New York-Presbyterian, Hospital and Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA
| | - Patricia A Xu
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Kaiyang Wang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Simon N Dunham
- Dalio Institute of Cardiovascular Imaging, Department of Radiology, New York-Presbyterian, Hospital and Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA
| | - Bobak Mosadegh
- Dalio Institute of Cardiovascular Imaging, Department of Radiology, New York-Presbyterian, Hospital and Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021, USA
| | - Robert F Shepherd
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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21
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O'Brien KW, Xu PA, Levine DJ, Aubin CA, Yang HJ, Xiao MF, Wiesner LW, Shepherd RF. Elastomeric passive transmission for autonomous force-velocity adaptation applied to 3D-printed prosthetics. Sci Robot 2018; 3:3/23/eaau5543. [PMID: 33141733 DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.aau5543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 09/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
The force, speed, dexterity, and compact size required of prosthetic hands present extreme design challenges for engineers. Current prosthetics rely on high-quality motors to achieve adequate precision, force, and speed in a small enough form factor with the trade-off of high cost. We present a simple, compact, and cost-effective continuously variable transmission produced via projection stereolithography. Our transmission, which we call an elastomeric passive transmission (EPT), is a polyurethane composite cylinder that autonomously adjusts its radius based on the tension in a wire spooled around it. We integrated six of these EPTs into a three-dimensionally printed soft prosthetic hand with six active degrees of freedom. Our EPTs provided the prosthetic hand with about three times increase in grip force without compromising flexion speed. This increased performance leads to finger closing speeds of ~0.5 seconds (average radial velocity, ~180 degrees second-1) and maximum fingertip forces of ~32 newtons per finger.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin W O'Brien
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Patricia A Xu
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - David J Levine
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Cameron A Aubin
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Ho-Jung Yang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Michael F Xiao
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Lennard W Wiesner
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Robert F Shepherd
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA. .,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
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22
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Ceron S, Cohen I, Shepherd RF, Pikul JH, Harnett C. Fiber Embroidery of Self-Sensing Soft Actuators. Biomimetics (Basel) 2018; 3:E24. [PMID: 31105246 PMCID: PMC6352685 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics3030024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2018] [Revised: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural organisms use a combination of contracting muscles and inextensible fibers to transform into controllable shapes, camouflage into their surrounding environment, and catch prey. Replicating these capabilities with engineered materials is challenging because of the difficulty in manufacturing and controlling soft material actuators with embedded fibers. In addition, while linear and bending motions are common in soft actuators, rotary motions require three-dimensional fiber wrapping or multiple bending or linear elements working in coordination that are challenging to design and fabricate. In this work, an automatic embroidery machine patterned Kevlar™ fibers and stretchable optical fibers into inflatable silicone membranes to control their inflated shape and enable sensing. This embroidery-based fabrication technique is simple, low cost, and allows for precise and custom patterning of fibers in elastomers. Using this technique, we developed inflatable elastomeric actuators embedded with a planar spiral pattern of high-strength Kevlar™ fibers that inflate into radially symmetric shapes and achieve nearly 180° angular rotation and 10 cm linear displacement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven Ceron
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA.
| | - Itai Cohen
- Department of Physics, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA.
| | - Robert F Shepherd
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA.
| | - James H Pikul
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
| | - Cindy Harnett
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, USA.
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23
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Mac Murray BC, Futran CC, Lee J, O'Brien KW, Amiri Moghadam AA, Mosadegh B, Silberstein MN, Min JK, Shepherd RF. Compliant Buckled Foam Actuators and Application in Patient-Specific Direct Cardiac Compression. Soft Robot 2017; 5:99-108. [PMID: 29412085 DOI: 10.1089/soro.2017.0018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We introduce the use of buckled foam for soft pneumatic actuators. A moderate amount of residual compressive strain within elastomer foam increases the applied force ∼1.4 × or stroke ∼2 × compared with actuators without residual strain. The origin of these improved characteristics is explained analytically. These actuators are applied in a direct cardiac compression (DCC) device design, a type of implanted mechanical circulatory support that avoids direct blood contact, mitigating risks of clot formation and stroke. This article describes a first step toward a pneumatically powered, patient-specific DCC design by employing elastomer foam as the mechanism for cardiac compression. To form the device, a mold of a patient's heart was obtained by 3D printing a digitized X-ray computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging scan into a solid model. From this model, a soft, robotic foam DCC device was molded. The DCC device is compliant and uses compressed air to inflate foam chambers that in turn apply compression to the exterior of a heart. The device is demonstrated on a porcine heart and is capable of assisting heart pumping at physiologically relevant durations (∼200 ms for systole and ∼400 ms for diastole) and stroke volumes (∼70 mL). Although further development is necessary to produce a fully implantable device, the material and processing insights presented here are essential to the implementation of a foam-based, patient-specific DCC design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin C Mac Murray
- 1 Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York
| | - Chaim C Futran
- 2 Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York
| | - Jeanne Lee
- 2 Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York
| | - Kevin W O'Brien
- 2 Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York
| | - Amir A Amiri Moghadam
- 3 Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medicine , New York, New York.,4 Dalio Institute of Cardiovascular Imaging , New York, New York
| | - Bobak Mosadegh
- 3 Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medicine , New York, New York.,4 Dalio Institute of Cardiovascular Imaging , New York, New York
| | - Meredith N Silberstein
- 2 Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York
| | - James K Min
- 3 Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medicine , New York, New York.,4 Dalio Institute of Cardiovascular Imaging , New York, New York
| | - Robert F Shepherd
- 2 Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University , Ithaca, New York
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24
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Wallin TJ, Pikul JH, Bodkhe S, Peele BN, Mac Murray BC, Therriault D, McEnerney BW, Dillon RP, Giannelis EP, Shepherd RF. Click chemistry stereolithography for soft robots that self-heal. J Mater Chem B 2017; 5:6249-6255. [PMID: 32264440 DOI: 10.1039/c7tb01605k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Although soft robotics promises a new generation of robust, versatile machines capable of complex functions and seamless integration with biology, the fabrication of such soft, three dimensional (3D) hierarchical structures remains a significant challenge. Stereolithography (SLA) is an additive manufacturing technique that can rapidly fabricate the complex device architectures required for the next generation of these systems. Current SLA materials and processes are prohibitively expensive, display little elastic deformation at room temperature, or exhibit Young's moduli exceeding most natural tissues, all of which limit use in soft robotics. Herein, we report a low-cost build window substrate that enables the rapid fabrication of high resolution (∼50 μm) silicone (polydimethylsiloxane) based elastomeric devices using an open source SLA printer. Our thiol-ene click chemistry permits photopolymerization using low energy (He < 20 mJ cm-2) optical wavelengths (405 nm < λ < 1 mm) available on many low-cost SLA machines. This chemistry is easily tuned to achieve storage moduli, 6 < E < 283 kPa at engineering strains, γ = 0.02; similarly, a large range of ultimate strains, 0.5 < γult < 4 is achievable through appropriate selection of the two primary chemical constituents (mercaptosiloxane, M.S., and vinylsiloxane, V.S.). Using this chemo-mechanical system, we directly fabricated compliant machines, including an antagonistic pair of fluidic elastomer actuators (a primary component in most soft robots). During printing, we retained unreacted pockets of M.S. and V.S. that permit autonomic self-healing, via sunlight, upon puncture of the elastomeric membranes of the soft actuators.
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Affiliation(s)
- T J Wallin
- Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
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25
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Zhao H, O’Brien K, Li S, Shepherd RF. Optoelectronically innervated soft prosthetic hand via stretchable optical waveguides. Sci Robot 2016; 1:1/1/eaai7529. [DOI: 10.1126/scirobotics.aai7529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 430] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2016] [Accepted: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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26
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Li S, Peele BN, Larson CM, Zhao H, Shepherd RF. A Stretchable Multicolor Display and Touch Interface Using Photopatterning and Transfer Printing. Adv Mater 2016; 28:9770-9775. [PMID: 27717071 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201603408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2016] [Revised: 08/04/2016] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
An intrinsically soft and stretchable multicolor display and touch interface is reported. Red, green, and blue pixels are formed separately by photopatterning transition-metal-doped ZnS embedded in silicone gels and transfer printing onto an elastomeric dielectric sheet. The device shows stable illumination while being stretched up to 200% area strain or under different deformation modalities. It also introduces capabilities for dynamic colorations and multipoint capacitive touch sensing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Li
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Bryan N Peele
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Chris M Larson
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Huichan Zhao
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Robert F Shepherd
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
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27
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfredo Argiolas
- Center for Micro-BioRobotics, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Pontedera, Italy
- The BioRobotics Institute, Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna, Pontedera, Italy
| | | | - Ilse Van Meerbeek
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
| | - John Whitehead
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
| | - Edoardo Sinibaldi
- Center for Micro-BioRobotics, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Pontedera, Italy
| | - Barbara Mazzolai
- Center for Micro-BioRobotics, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Pontedera, Italy
| | - Robert F. Shepherd
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
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28
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Van Meerbeek IM, Mac Murray BC, Kim JW, Robinson SS, Zou PX, Silberstein MN, Shepherd RF. Morphing Metal and Elastomer Bicontinuous Foams for Reversible Stiffness, Shape Memory, and Self-Healing Soft Machines. Adv Mater 2016; 28:2801-2806. [PMID: 26872152 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201505991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2015] [Revised: 12/18/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
A metal-elastomer-foam composite that varies in stiffness, that can change shape and store shape memory, that self-heals, and that welds into monolithic structures from smaller components is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilse M Van Meerbeek
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Benjamin C Mac Murray
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Jae Woo Kim
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Sanlin S Robinson
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Perry X Zou
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Meredith N Silberstein
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Robert F Shepherd
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
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29
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Mac Murray BC, An X, Robinson SS, van Meerbeek IM, O'Brien KW, Zhao H, Shepherd RF. Poroelastic Foams for Simple Fabrication of Complex Soft Robots. Adv Mater 2015; 27:6334-40. [PMID: 26384472 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201503464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2015] [Revised: 08/12/2015] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Open-celled, elastomeric foams allow the simple design of fully 3D pneumatic soft machines using common forming techniques. This is demonstrated through the fabrication of simple actuators and an entirely soft, functional fluid pump formed in the shape of the human heart. The device pumps at physiologically relevant frequencies and pressures and attains a flow rate higher than all previously reported soft pumps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin C Mac Murray
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, 214 Bard Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Xintong An
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Cornell University, 120 Olin Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Sanlin S Robinson
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Cornell University, 214 Bard Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Ilse M van Meerbeek
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, 105 Upson Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Kevin W O'Brien
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, 105 Upson Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Huichan Zhao
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, 105 Upson Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Robert F Shepherd
- Sibley School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, 105 Upson Hall, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
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Abstract
The detailed mechanical design of a digital mask projection stereolithgraphy system is described for the 3D printing of soft actuators. A commercially available, photopolymerizable elastomeric material is identified and characterized in its liquid and solid form using rheological and tensile testing. Its capabilities for use in directly printing high degree of freedom (DOF), soft actuators is assessed. An outcome is the ∼40% strain to failure of the printed elastomer structures. Using the resulting material properties, numerical simulations of pleated actuator architectures are analyzed to reduce stress concentration and increase actuation amplitudes. Antagonistic pairs of pleated actuators are then fabricated and tested for four-DOF, tentacle-like motion. These antagonistic pairs are shown to sweep through their full range of motion (∼180°) with a period of less than 70 ms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan N Peele
- Sibley School of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
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31
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Wehner M, Tolley MT, Mengüç Y, Park YL, Mozeika A, Ding Y, Onal C, Shepherd RF, Whitesides GM, Wood RJ. Pneumatic Energy Sources for Autonomous and Wearable Soft Robotics. Soft Robot 2014. [DOI: 10.1089/soro.2014.0018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Wehner
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Michael T. Tolley
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Yiğit Mengüç
- School of Mechanical, Industrial, and Manufacturing Engineering, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
| | - Yong-Lae Park
- The Robotics Institute, School of Computer Science, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | | | - Ye Ding
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Cagdas Onal
- Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts
| | - Robert F. Shepherd
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
| | - George M. Whitesides
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Robert J. Wood
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts
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32
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Morin SA, Shevchenko Y, Lessing J, Kwok SW, Shepherd RF, Stokes AA, Whitesides GM. Using "click-e-bricks" to make 3D elastomeric structures. Adv Mater 2014; 26:5991-5999. [PMID: 25080193 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201401642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2014] [Revised: 06/05/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Soft, 3D elastomeric structures and composite structures are easy to fabricate using click-e-bricks, and the internal architecture of these structures together with the capabilities built into the bricks themselves provide mechanical, optical, electrical, and fluidic functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen A Morin
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
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33
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael T. Tolley
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Robert F. Shepherd
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
| | - Bobak Mosadegh
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Kevin C. Galloway
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Michael Wehner
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Michael Karpelson
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Robert J. Wood
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - George M. Whitesides
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
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34
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Tricard S, Shepherd RF, Stan CA, Snyder PW, Cademartiri R, Zhu D, Aranson IS, Shakhnovich EI, Whitesides GM. Mechanical Model of Globular Transition in Polymers. Chempluschem 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/cplu.201402203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Simon Tricard
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138 (USA)
| | - Robert F. Shepherd
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138 (USA)
| | - Claudiu A. Stan
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138 (USA)
| | - Phillip W. Snyder
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138 (USA)
| | - Rebecca Cademartiri
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138 (USA)
| | - Danny Zhu
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138 (USA)
| | - Igor S. Aranson
- Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 South Cass Avenue, Argonne, IL 60439 (USA)
| | - Eugene I. Shakhnovich
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138 (USA)
| | - George M. Whitesides
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138 (USA)
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35
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam A. Stokes
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Robert F. Shepherd
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Stephen A. Morin
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Filip Ilievski
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - George M. Whitesides
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
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36
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Mosadegh B, Mazzeo AD, Shepherd RF, Morin SA, Gupta U, Sani IZ, Lai D, Takayama S, Whitesides GM. Control of soft machines using actuators operated by a Braille display. Lab Chip 2014; 14:189-99. [PMID: 24196070 PMCID: PMC3880808 DOI: 10.1039/c3lc51083b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
One strategy for actuating soft machines (e.g., tentacles, grippers, and simple walkers) uses pneumatic inflation of networks of small channels in an elastomeric material. Although the management of a few pneumatic inputs and valves to control pressurized gas is straightforward, the fabrication and operation of manifolds containing many (>50) independent valves is an unsolved problem. Complex pneumatic manifolds-often built for a single purpose-are not easily reconfigured to accommodate the specific inputs (i.e., multiplexing of many fluids, ranges of pressures, and changes in flow rates) required by pneumatic systems. This paper describes a pneumatic manifold comprising a computer-controlled Braille display and a micropneumatic device. The Braille display provides a compact array of 64 piezoelectric actuators that actively close and open elastomeric valves of a micropneumatic device to route pressurized gas within the manifold. The positioning and geometries of the valves and channels in the micropneumatic device dictate the functionality of the pneumatic manifold, and the use of multi-layer soft lithography permits the fabrication of networks in a wide range of configurations with many possible functions. Simply exchanging micropneumatic devices of different designs enables rapid reconfiguration of the pneumatic manifold. As a proof of principle, a pneumatic manifold controlled a soft machine containing 32 independent actuators to move a ball above a flat surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bobak Mosadegh
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.
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37
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Shepherd RF, Stokes AA, Nunes RMD, Whitesides GM. Soft machines that are resistant to puncture and that self seal. Adv Mater 2013; 25:6709-6713. [PMID: 24123311 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201303175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2013] [Revised: 08/09/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
A soft machine composed of a composite of elastomer and fibers resists puncture from sharp objects, and continues to operate even if punctured.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert F Shepherd
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02138, USA
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38
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Gries G, King GG, Gries R, Wimalaratne PD, Gray TG, Shepherd RF, Li J, Slessor KN, Khaskin G. 3,13-Dimethylheptadecane: Major sex pheromone component of the western false hemlock looper,Nepytia freemani Munroe (Lepidoptera: Geometridae). J Chem Ecol 2013; 19:1501-10. [PMID: 24249179 DOI: 10.1007/bf00984893] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/1992] [Accepted: 02/23/1993] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
3,13-Dimethylheptadecane (3,13-dime-17Hy) is the major sex pheromone component of the western false hemlock looper (WFHL),Nepytia freemani Munroe. It was identified in extracts of female pheromone glands by coupled gas chromatographic-electroantennographic detection (GC-EAD) and coupled GC-mass spectroscopy (GC-MS). Traps baited with 100μg of 3,13-dime-17Hy attracted large numbers of male WFHL. Of five additional candidate pheromone dimethylated hydrocarbons, only 3,13-dimethylhexadecane attracted male WFHL. However, neither 3,13-dime-16Hy nor the other four compounds enhanced attraction to 3,13-dime-17Hy when tested in binary or ternary combination at respective ratios of 100∶10, 100∶1, or 100∶1∶1. Identification of the complete WFHL sex pheromone requires structural elucidation of all 12 EAD-active components in gland extracts, determination of their chirality, and field testing of antennally active isomers in appropriate combinations and ratios. Stereoisomeric 3,13-dime-17Hy as trap bait may already be used to monitor WFHL populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Gries
- Department of Biological Sciences, Centre for Pest Management, USA
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39
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Abstract
A pneumatically-driven robot traverses surfaces with different traction by adopting an undulatory mode of locomotion. The robot is composed of soft elastomer (elastic modulus ~100 kPa), an inextensible but flexible neutral plane, and embedded pneumatic channels. In contrast to conventional robots and wheeled vehicles, the robot deforms elastically to make ground contact over a relatively large area, where interfacial tractions have a unique role in controlling both the speed and direction of locomotion. Here, we demonstrate that for the same undulatory gait, the robot will either move forward or backward depending on the ground composition. Building on mathematical principles of elasticity and friction, we introduce a theoretical model that identifies the tribological properties that determine the direction of locomotion. Though overlooked in the past, this tribology-controlled phenomenon represents a central feature of undulation on smooth, soft, and slippery surfaces. These insights provide a starting point for identifying locomotion strategies that allow soft robots, like their natural invertebrate counterparts, to navigate a broad range of surfaces and terrains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmel Majidi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and The Robotics Institute, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Robert F. Shepherd
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Rebecca K. Kramer
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - George M. Whitesides
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Robert J. Wood
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
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40
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Shepherd RF, Stokes AA, Freake J, Barber J, Snyder PW, Mazzeo AD, Cademartiri L, Morin SA, Whitesides GM. Using Explosions to Power a Soft Robot. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2013. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201209540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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41
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Shepherd RF, Stokes AA, Freake J, Barber J, Snyder PW, Mazzeo AD, Cademartiri L, Morin SA, Whitesides GM. Using Explosions to Power a Soft Robot. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2013; 52:2892-6. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201209540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2012] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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42
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Martinez RV, Branch JL, Fish CR, Jin L, Shepherd RF, Nunes RMD, Suo Z, Whitesides GM. Robotic tentacles with three-dimensional mobility based on flexible elastomers. Adv Mater 2013; 25:205-12. [PMID: 22961655 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201203002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2012] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Soft robotic tentacles that move in three dimensions upon pressurization are fabricated by composing flexible elastomers with different tensile strengths using soft lithographic molding. These actuators are able to grip complex shapes and manipulate delicate objects. Embedding functional components into these actuators (for example, a needle for delivering fluid, a video camera, and a suction cup) extends their capabilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramses V Martinez
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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43
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Tricard S, Feinstein E, Shepherd RF, Reches M, Snyder PW, Bandarage DC, Prentiss M, Whitesides GM. Analog modeling of Worm-Like Chain molecules using macroscopic beads-on-a-string. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2012; 14:9041-6. [DOI: 10.1039/c2cp40593h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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44
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Abstract
This manuscript describes a unique class of locomotive robot: A soft robot, composed exclusively of soft materials (elastomeric polymers), which is inspired by animals (e.g., squid, starfish, worms) that do not have hard internal skeletons. Soft lithography was used to fabricate a pneumatically actuated robot capable of sophisticated locomotion (e.g., fluid movement of limbs and multiple gaits). This robot is quadrupedal; it uses no sensors, only five actuators, and a simple pneumatic valving system that operates at low pressures (< 10 psi). A combination of crawling and undulation gaits allowed this robot to navigate a difficult obstacle. This demonstration illustrates an advantage of soft robotics: They are systems in which simple types of actuation produce complex motion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert F Shepherd
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, 12 Oxford Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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45
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Ilievski F, Mazzeo AD, Shepherd RF, Chen X, Whitesides GM. Cover Picture: Soft Robotics for Chemists (Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 8/2011). Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201000255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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46
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Ilievski F, Mazzeo AD, Shepherd RF, Chen X, Whitesides GM. Titelbild: Soft Robotics for Chemists (Angew. Chem. 8/2011). Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201000255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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47
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48
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49
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Hanson Shepherd JN, Parker ST, Shepherd RF, Gillette MU, Lewis JA, Nuzzo RG. 3D Microperiodic Hydrogel Scaffolds for Robust Neuronal Cultures. Adv Funct Mater 2011; 21:47-54. [PMID: 21709750 PMCID: PMC3120232 DOI: 10.1002/adfm.201001746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) microperiodic scaffolds of poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (pHEMA) have been fabricated by direct-write assembly of a photopolymerizable hydrogel ink. The ink is initially composed of physically entangled pHEMA chains dissolved in a solution of HEMA monomer, comonomer, photoinitiator and water. Upon printing 3D scaffolds of varying architecture, the ink filaments are exposed to UV light, where they are transformed into an interpenetrating hydrogel network of chemically cross-linked and physically entangled pHEMA chains. These 3D microperiodic scaffolds are rendered growth compliant for primary rat hippocampal neurons by absorption of polylysine. Neuronal cells thrive on these scaffolds, forming differentiated, intricately branched networks. Confocal laser scanning microscopy reveals that both cell distribution and extent of neuronal process alignment depend upon scaffold architecture. This work provides an important step forward in the creation of suitable platforms for in vitro study of sensitive cell types.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer N. Hanson Shepherd
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, 1304 W Green St., Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Sara T. Parker
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, 1304 W Green St., Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Robert F. Shepherd
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, 1304 W Green St., Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Martha U. Gillette
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 601 South Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Jennifer A. Lewis
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, 1304 W Green St., Urbana, IL 61801
| | - Ralph G. Nuzzo
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, 1304 W Green St., Urbana, IL 61801
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, 505 South Mathews Ave., Urbana, IL 61801
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50
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Shepherd RF, Conrad JC, Rhodes SK, Link DR, Marquez M, Weitz DA, Lewis JA. Microfluidic assembly of homogeneous and Janus colloid-filled hydrogel granules. Langmuir 2006. [PMID: 17014093 DOI: 10.1021/la060759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The microfluidic assembly of colloid-filled hydrogel granules of varying shape and composition is described. First, drops are formed by shearing a concentrated colloidal microsphere-acrylamide suspension in a continuous oil phase using a sheath-flow device. Both homogeneous and Janus (hemispherically distinct) spheres and disks are produced by confining the assembled drops in microchannels of varying geometry. Next, photopolymerization is carried out shortly after drop breakup to preserve their morphology. Representative wet and dried granules are characterized using fluorescence and scanning electron microscopy, respectively. Our approach offers a facile route for assembling colloid-filled hydrogel granules with controlled shape and composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert F Shepherd
- Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
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