1
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Díaz RE, Ecker AK, Correy GJ, Asthana P, Young ID, Faust B, Thompson MC, Seiple IB, Van Dyken SJ, Locksley RM, Fraser JS. Structural characterization of ligand binding and pH-specific enzymatic activity of mouse Acidic Mammalian Chitinase. bioRxiv 2024:2023.06.03.542675. [PMID: 37398339 PMCID: PMC10312649 DOI: 10.1101/2023.06.03.542675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
Chitin is an abundant biopolymer and pathogen-associated molecular pattern that stimulates a host innate immune response. Mammals express chitin-binding and chitin-degrading proteins to remove chitin from the body. One of these proteins, Acidic Mammalian Chitinase (AMCase), is an enzyme known for its ability to function under acidic conditions in the stomach but is also active in tissues with more neutral pHs, such as the lung. Here, we used a combination of biochemical, structural, and computational modeling approaches to examine how the mouse homolog (mAMCase) can act in both acidic and neutral environments. We measured kinetic properties of mAMCase activity across a broad pH range, quantifying its unusual dual activity optima at pH 2 and 7. We also solved high resolution crystal structures of mAMCase in complex with oligomeric GlcNAcn, the building block of chitin, where we identified extensive conformational ligand heterogeneity. Leveraging these data, we conducted molecular dynamics simulations that suggest how a key catalytic residue could be protonated via distinct mechanisms in each of the two environmental pH ranges. These results integrate structural, biochemical, and computational approaches to deliver a more complete understanding of the catalytic mechanism governing mAMCase activity at different pH. Engineering proteins with tunable pH optima may provide new opportunities to develop improved enzyme variants, including AMCase, for therapeutic purposes in chitin degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Efraín Díaz
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Tetrad Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Andrew K Ecker
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Chemistry and Chemical Biology Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Galen J Correy
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Pooja Asthana
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Iris D Young
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Bryan Faust
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Biophysics Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Michael C Thompson
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, University of California, Merced, Merced, CA 95343, USA
| | - Ian B Seiple
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Steven J Van Dyken
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Richard M Locksley
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
- University of California, San Francisco, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - James S Fraser
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
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2
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Ricardo-Gonzalez RR, Kotas ME, O'Leary CE, Singh K, Damsky W, Liao C, Arouge E, Tenvooren I, Marquez DM, Schroeder AW, Cohen JN, Fassett MS, Lee J, Daniel SG, Bittinger K, Díaz RE, Fraser JS, Ali N, Ansel KM, Spitzer MH, Liang HE, Locksley RM. Innate type 2 immunity controls hair follicle commensalism by Demodex mites. Immunity 2022; 55:1891-1908.e12. [PMID: 36044899 PMCID: PMC9561030 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2022.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Demodex mites are commensal parasites of hair follicles (HFs). Normally asymptomatic, inflammatory outgrowth of mites can accompany malnutrition, immune dysfunction, and aging, but mechanisms restricting Demodex outgrowth are not defined. Here, we show that control of mite HF colonization in mice required group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s), interleukin-13 (IL-13), and its receptor, IL-4Ra-IL-13Ra1. HF-associated ILC2s elaborated IL-13 that attenuated HFs and epithelial proliferation at anagen onset; in their absence, Demodex colonization led to increased epithelial proliferation and replacement of gene programs for repair by aberrant inflammation, leading to the loss of barrier function and HF exhaustion. Humans with rhinophymatous acne rosacea, an inflammatory condition associated with Demodex, had increased HF inflammation with decreased type 2 cytokines, consistent with the inverse relationship seen in mice. Our studies uncover a key role for skin ILC2s and IL-13, which comprise an immune checkpoint that sustains cutaneous integrity and restricts pathologic infestation by colonizing HF mites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto R Ricardo-Gonzalez
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, USA.
| | - Maya E Kotas
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Claire E O'Leary
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Katelyn Singh
- Department of Dermatology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - William Damsky
- Department of Dermatology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Department of Pathology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Chang Liao
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Elizabeth Arouge
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Iliana Tenvooren
- Department of Otolaryngology and Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Diana M Marquez
- Department of Otolaryngology and Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Andrew W Schroeder
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Jarish N Cohen
- Department of Pathology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Marlys S Fassett
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Jinwoo Lee
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Scott G Daniel
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Kyle Bittinger
- Division of Gastroenterology, Hepatology, and Nutrition, The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Roberto Efraín Díaz
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Tetrad Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - James S Fraser
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Niwa Ali
- Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - K Mark Ansel
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Matthew H Spitzer
- Department of Otolaryngology and Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Parker Institute for Cancer Immunotherapy, San Francisco, CA, USA; Chan Zuckerberg Biohub, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Hong-Erh Liang
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Richard M Locksley
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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3
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Schuller M, Correy GJ, Gahbauer S, Fearon D, Wu T, Díaz RE, Young ID, Carvalho Martins L, Smith DH, Schulze-Gahmen U, Owens TW, Deshpande I, Merz GE, Thwin AC, Biel JT, Peters JK, Moritz M, Herrera N, Kratochvil HT, Aimon A, Bennett JM, Brandao Neto J, Cohen AE, Dias A, Douangamath A, Dunnett L, Fedorov O, Ferla MP, Fuchs MR, Gorrie-Stone TJ, Holton JM, Johnson MG, Krojer T, Meigs G, Powell AJ, Rack JGM, Rangel VL, Russi S, Skyner RE, Smith CA, Soares AS, Wierman JL, Zhu K, O'Brien P, Jura N, Ashworth A, Irwin JJ, Thompson MC, Gestwicki JE, von Delft F, Shoichet BK, Fraser JS, Ahel I. Fragment binding to the Nsp3 macrodomain of SARS-CoV-2 identified through crystallographic screening and computational docking. Sci Adv 2021; 7:eabf8711. [PMID: 33853786 PMCID: PMC8046379 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abf8711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) macrodomain within the nonstructural protein 3 counteracts host-mediated antiviral adenosine diphosphate-ribosylation signaling. This enzyme is a promising antiviral target because catalytic mutations render viruses nonpathogenic. Here, we report a massive crystallographic screening and computational docking effort, identifying new chemical matter primarily targeting the active site of the macrodomain. Crystallographic screening of 2533 diverse fragments resulted in 214 unique macrodomain-binders. An additional 60 molecules were selected from docking more than 20 million fragments, of which 20 were crystallographically confirmed. X-ray data collection to ultra-high resolution and at physiological temperature enabled assessment of the conformational heterogeneity around the active site. Several fragment hits were confirmed by solution binding using three biophysical techniques (differential scanning fluorimetry, homogeneous time-resolved fluorescence, and isothermal titration calorimetry). The 234 fragment structures explore a wide range of chemotypes and provide starting points for development of potent SARS-CoV-2 macrodomain inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Schuller
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK
| | - Galen J Correy
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Stefan Gahbauer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Daren Fearon
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0DE, UK
- Research Complex at Harwell, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0FA UK
| | - Taiasean Wu
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Chemistry and Chemical Biology Graduate Program, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Roberto Efraín Díaz
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Tetrad Graduate Program, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Iris D Young
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Luan Carvalho Martins
- Biochemistry Department, Institute for Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Dominique H Smith
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Ursula Schulze-Gahmen
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Tristan W Owens
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Ishan Deshpande
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Gregory E Merz
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Aye C Thwin
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Justin T Biel
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Jessica K Peters
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Michelle Moritz
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Nadia Herrera
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Huong T Kratochvil
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Anthony Aimon
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0DE, UK
- Research Complex at Harwell, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0FA UK
| | - James M Bennett
- Centre for Medicines Discovery, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Headington OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - Jose Brandao Neto
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0DE, UK
- Research Complex at Harwell, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0FA UK
| | - Aina E Cohen
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Center, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
| | - Alexandre Dias
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0DE, UK
- Research Complex at Harwell, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0FA UK
| | - Alice Douangamath
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0DE, UK
- Research Complex at Harwell, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0FA UK
| | - Louise Dunnett
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0DE, UK
- Research Complex at Harwell, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0FA UK
| | - Oleg Fedorov
- Centre for Medicines Discovery, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Headington OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - Matteo P Ferla
- Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Martin R Fuchs
- National Synchrotron Light Source II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Tyler J Gorrie-Stone
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0DE, UK
- Research Complex at Harwell, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0FA UK
| | - James M Holton
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Center, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Integrated Bioimaging, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | | | - Tobias Krojer
- Centre for Medicines Discovery, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Headington OX3 7DQ, UK
- Structural Genomics Consortium, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus, Roosevelt Drive, Headington OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - George Meigs
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Integrated Bioimaging, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Ailsa J Powell
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0DE, UK
- Research Complex at Harwell, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0FA UK
| | | | - Victor L Rangel
- Centre for Medicines Discovery, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Headington OX3 7DQ, UK
- Structural Genomics Consortium, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus, Roosevelt Drive, Headington OX3 7DQ, UK
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Silvia Russi
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Center, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
| | - Rachael E Skyner
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0DE, UK
- Research Complex at Harwell, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0FA UK
| | - Clyde A Smith
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Center, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
| | - Alexei S Soares
- Photon Sciences, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY 11973, USA
| | - Jennifer L Wierman
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Center, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
| | - Kang Zhu
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK
| | - Peter O'Brien
- Department of Chemistry, University of York, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK
| | - Natalia Jura
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Alan Ashworth
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - John J Irwin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Michael C Thompson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California Merced, Merced, CA 95343, USA
| | - Jason E Gestwicki
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA
| | - Frank von Delft
- Centre for Medicines Discovery, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Headington OX3 7DQ, UK
- Structural Genomics Consortium, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus, Roosevelt Drive, Headington OX3 7DQ, UK
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0DE, UK.
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa
- Research Complex at Harwell, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot, OX11 0FA UK
| | - Brian K Shoichet
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.
| | - James S Fraser
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94158, USA.
| | - Ivan Ahel
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK.
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4
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Schuller M, Correy GJ, Gahbauer S, Fearon D, Wu T, Díaz RE, Young ID, Martins LC, Smith DH, Schulze-Gahmen U, Owens TW, Deshpande I, Merz GE, Thwin AC, Biel JT, Peters JK, Moritz M, Herrera N, Kratochvil HT, Aimon A, Bennett JM, Neto JB, Cohen AE, Dias A, Douangamath A, Dunnett L, Fedorov O, Ferla MP, Fuchs M, Gorrie-Stone TJ, Holton JM, Johnson MG, Krojer T, Meigs G, Powell AJ, Rangel VL, Russi S, Skyner RE, Smith CA, Soares AS, Wierman JL, Zhu K, Jura N, Ashworth A, Irwin J, Thompson MC, Gestwicki JE, von Delft F, Shoichet BK, Fraser JS, Ahel I. Fragment Binding to the Nsp3 Macrodomain of SARS-CoV-2 Identified Through Crystallographic Screening and Computational Docking. bioRxiv 2020:2020.11.24.393405. [PMID: 33269349 PMCID: PMC7709169 DOI: 10.1101/2020.11.24.393405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 macrodomain (Mac1) within the non-structural protein 3 (Nsp3) counteracts host-mediated antiviral ADP-ribosylation signalling. This enzyme is a promising antiviral target because catalytic mutations render viruses non-pathogenic. Here, we report a massive crystallographic screening and computational docking effort, identifying new chemical matter primarily targeting the active site of the macrodomain. Crystallographic screening of diverse fragment libraries resulted in 214 unique macrodomain-binding fragments, out of 2,683 screened. An additional 60 molecules were selected from docking over 20 million fragments, of which 20 were crystallographically confirmed. X-ray data collection to ultra-high resolution and at physiological temperature enabled assessment of the conformational heterogeneity around the active site. Several crystallographic and docking fragment hits were validated for solution binding using three biophysical techniques (DSF, HTRF, ITC). Overall, the 234 fragment structures presented explore a wide range of chemotypes and provide starting points for development of potent SARS-CoV-2 macrodomain inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Schuller
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK
| | - Galen J. Correy
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Stefan Gahbauer
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Daren Fearon
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0DE, United Kingdom
| | - Taiasean Wu
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
- Chemistry and Chemical Biology Graduate Program, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Roberto Efraín Díaz
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
- Tetrad Graduate Program, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Iris D. Young
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Luan Carvalho Martins
- Biochemistry Department, Institute for Biological Sciences, Federal University of Minas Gerais. Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Dominique H. Smith
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Ursula Schulze-Gahmen
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Tristan W. Owens
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Ishan Deshpande
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Gregory E. Merz
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Aye C. Thwin
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Justin T. Biel
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Jessica K. Peters
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Michelle Moritz
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Nadia Herrera
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Huong T. Kratochvil
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - QCRG Structural Biology Consortium
- Quantitative Biosciences Institute (QBI) Coronavirus Research Group Structural Biology Consortium, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Anthony Aimon
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0DE, United Kingdom
| | - James M. Bennett
- Centre for Medicines Discovery, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Headington, OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - Jose Brandao Neto
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0DE, United Kingdom
| | - Aina E. Cohen
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Center, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
| | - Alexandre Dias
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0DE, United Kingdom
| | - Alice Douangamath
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0DE, United Kingdom
| | - Louise Dunnett
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0DE, United Kingdom
| | - Oleg Fedorov
- Centre for Medicines Discovery, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Headington, OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - Matteo P. Ferla
- Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus, Oxford OX3 7BN, UK
| | - Martin Fuchs
- National Synchrotron Light Source II, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, USA
| | - Tyler J. Gorrie-Stone
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0DE, United Kingdom
| | - James M. Holton
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Center, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Integrated Bioimaging, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | | | - Tobias Krojer
- Centre for Medicines Discovery, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Headington, OX3 7DQ, UK
- Structural Genomics Consortium, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus, Roosevelt Drive, Headington OX3 7DQ, UK
| | - George Meigs
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Integrated Bioimaging, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Ailsa J. Powell
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0DE, United Kingdom
| | | | - Victor L Rangel
- Centre for Medicines Discovery, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Headington, OX3 7DQ, UK
- Structural Genomics Consortium, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus, Roosevelt Drive, Headington OX3 7DQ, UK
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Ribeirao Preto, University of Sao Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Silvia Russi
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Center, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
| | - Rachael E. Skyner
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0DE, United Kingdom
| | - Clyde A. Smith
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Center, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
| | | | - Jennifer L. Wierman
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Center, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
| | - Kang Zhu
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK
| | - Natalia Jura
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Pharmacology, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Alan Ashworth
- Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - John Irwin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Michael C. Thompson
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, University of California Merced, CA, USA
| | - Jason E. Gestwicki
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco San Francisco, CA, USA
- Institute for Neurodegenerative Disease, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Frank von Delft
- Diamond Light Source Ltd., Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0DE, United Kingdom
- Centre for Medicines Discovery, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Headington, OX3 7DQ, UK
- Structural Genomics Consortium, University of Oxford, Old Road Campus, Roosevelt Drive, Headington OX3 7DQ, UK
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, 2006, South Africa
| | - Brian K. Shoichet
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of California San Francisco San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - James S. Fraser
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Ivan Ahel
- Sir William Dunn School of Pathology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3RE, UK
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