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Kobziar LN, Lampman P, Tohidi A, Kochanski AK, Cervantes A, Hudak AT, McCarley R, Gullett B, Aurell J, Moore R, Vuono DC, Christner BC, Watts AC, Cronan J, Ottmar R. Bacterial Emission Factors: A Foundation for the Terrestrial-Atmospheric Modeling of Bacteria Aerosolized by Wildland Fires. Environ Sci Technol 2024; 58:2413-2422. [PMID: 38266235 PMCID: PMC10851933 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c05142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 12/31/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
Wildland fire is a major global driver in the exchange of aerosols between terrestrial environments and the atmosphere. This exchange is commonly quantified using emission factors or the mass of a pollutant emitted per mass of fuel burned. However, emission factors for microbes aerosolized by fire have yet to be determined. Using bacterial cell concentrations collected on unmanned aircraft systems over forest fires in Utah, USA, we determine bacterial emission factors (BEFs) for the first time. We estimate that 1.39 × 1010 and 7.68 × 1011 microbes are emitted for each Mg of biomass consumed in fires burning thinning residues and intact forests, respectively. These emissions exceed estimates of background bacterial emissions in other studies by 3-4 orders of magnitude. For the ∼2631 ha of similar forests in the Fishlake National Forest that burn each year on average, an estimated 1.35 × 1017 cells or 8.1 kg of bacterial biomass were emitted. BEFs were then used to parametrize a computationally scalable particle transport model that predicted over 99% of the emitted cells were transported beyond the 17.25 x 17.25 km model domain. BEFs can be used to expand understanding of global wildfire microbial emissions and their potential consequences to ecosystems, the atmosphere, and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leda N. Kobziar
- Department
of Natural Resources and Society, University
of Idaho, 1031 N. Academic Way, Coeur d’Alene, Idaho 83814, United States
| | - Phinehas Lampman
- Department
of Natural Resources and Society, University
of Idaho, 1031 N. Academic Way, Coeur d’Alene, Idaho 83814, United States
| | - Ali Tohidi
- Mechanical
Engineering Department, Wildfire Interdisciplinary Research Center, San Jose State University, San Jose, California 95192, United States
| | - Adam K. Kochanski
- Department
of Meteorology and Climate Science, Wildfire Interdisciplinary Research
Center, San Jose State University, San Jose, California 95192, United States
| | - Antonio Cervantes
- Mechanical
Engineering Department, Wildfire Interdisciplinary Research Center, San Jose State University, San Jose, California 95192, United States
| | - Andrew T. Hudak
- Rocky
Mountain Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Moscow, Idaho 83846, United States
| | - Ryan McCarley
- Department
of Forest, Fire and Rangeland Sciences, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho 83844, United States
| | - Brian Gullett
- Office of
Research and Development, Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina 27711, United States
| | - Johanna Aurell
- Office of
Research and Development, Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle
Park, North Carolina 27711, United States
| | - Rachel Moore
- Department
of Microbiology and Cell Science, University
of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - David C. Vuono
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Brent C. Christner
- Department
of Microbiology and Cell Science, University
of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Adam C. Watts
- Pacific
Northwest Research Station, USDA Forest
Service, Wenatchee, Washington 98801, United States
| | - James Cronan
- Pacific
Northwest Research Station, USDA Forest
Service, Seattle, Washington 98103, United States
| | - Roger Ottmar
- Pacific
Northwest Research Station, USDA Forest
Service, Seattle, Washington 98103, United States
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Aurell J, Gullett B, Holder A, Kiros F, Mitchell W, Watts A, Ottmar R. Wildland Fire Emission Sampling at Fishlake National Forest, Utah Using an Unmanned Aircraft System. Atmos Environ (1994) 2021; 247:118193. [PMID: 34335074 PMCID: PMC8318188 DOI: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2021.118193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Emissions from a stand replacement prescribed burn were sampled using an unmanned aircraft system (UAS, or "drone") in Fishlake National Forest, Utah, U.S.A. Sixteen flights over three days in June 2019 provided emission factors for a broad range of compounds including carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen oxide (NO2), particulate matter < 2.5 microns in diameter (PM2.5), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) including carbonyls, black carbon, and elemental/organic carbon. To our knowledge, this is the first UAS-based emission sampling for a fire of this magnitude, including both slash pile and crown fires resulting in wildfire-like conditions. The burns consisted of drip torch ignitions as well as ground-mobile and aerial helicopter ignitions of large stands comprising over 1,000 ha, allowing for comparison of same-species emission factors burned under different conditions. The use of a UAS for emission sampling minimizes risk to personnel and equipment, allowing flexibility in sampling location and ensuring capture of representative, fresh smoke constituents. PM2.5 emission factors varied 5-fold and, like most pollutants, varied inversely with combustion efficiency resulting in lower emission factors from the slash piles than the crown fires.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Aurell
- University of Dayton Research Institute, 300 College Park, Dayton, OH 45469, USA
| | - B. Gullett
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, 109 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
- Corresponding author : phone (+1-919) 541-1534; fax (+1-919) 541-0554
| | - A. Holder
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, 109 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
| | - F. Kiros
- University of Dayton Research Institute, 300 College Park, Dayton, OH 45469, USA
| | - W. Mitchell
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, 109 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
| | - A. Watts
- Desert Research Institute, 2215 Raggio Parkway, Reno, NV 89512, USA
| | - R. Ottmar
- U.S. Forest Service, Pacific Wildland Forest Service Laboratory, 400 North 34 Street, Seattle, WA 98103, USA
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Prichard S, Larkin NS, Ottmar R, French NH, Baker K, Brown T, Clements C, Dickinson M, Hudak A, Kochanski A, Linn R, Liu Y, Potter B, Mell W, Tanzer D, Urbanski S, Watts A. The Fire and Smoke Model Evaluation Experiment-A Plan for Integrated, Large Fire-Atmosphere Field Campaigns. Atmosphere (Basel) 2019; 10:66. [PMID: 32704394 PMCID: PMC7376818 DOI: 10.3390/atmos10020066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The Fire and Smoke Model Evaluation Experiment (FASMEE) is designed to collect integrated observations from large wildland fires and provide evaluation datasets for new models and operational systems. Wildland fire, smoke dispersion, and atmospheric chemistry models have become more sophisticated, and next-generation operational models will require evaluation datasets that are coordinated and comprehensive for their evaluation and advancement. Integrated measurements are required, including ground-based observations of fuels and fire behavior, estimates of fire-emitted heat and emissions fluxes, and observations of near-source micrometeorology, plume properties, smoke dispersion, and atmospheric chemistry. To address these requirements the FASMEE campaign design includes a study plan to guide the suite of required measurements in forested sites representative of many prescribed burning programs in the southeastern United States and increasingly common high-intensity fires in the western United States. Here we provide an overview of the proposed experiment and recommendations for key measurements. The FASMEE study provides a template for additional large-scale experimental campaigns to advance fire science and operational fire and smoke models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Prichard
- University of Washington School of Environmental and Forest Sciences, Box 352100, Seattle, WA 98195-2100
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-509-341-4493
| | - N. Sim Larkin
- US Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station, Pacific Wildland Fire Sciences Laboratory, Suite 201, Seattle, WA 98103, USA
| | - Roger Ottmar
- US Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station, Pacific Wildland Fire Sciences Laboratory, Suite 201, Seattle, WA 98103, USA
| | - Nancy H.F. French
- Michigan Technological University, 3600 Green Court, Suite 100, Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA
| | - Kirk Baker
- US Environmental Protection Agency, 109 T.W. Alexander Drive, Durham, NC 27709, USA
| | - Tim Brown
- Desert Research Institute, 2215 Raggio Parkway, Reno, NV 89512, USA
| | - Craig Clements
- San José State University Department of Meteorology and Climate Science, One Washington Square, San Jose, CA 95192-0104, USA
| | - Matt Dickinson
- US Forest Service Northern Research Station, 359 Main Rd., Delaware, OH 43015, USA
| | - Andrew Hudak
- US Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station Moscow Forestry Sciences Laboratory, 1221 S Main St., Moscow, ID 83843, USA
| | - Adam Kochanski
- Department of Atmospheric Sciences, University of Utah, 135 S 1460 East, Salt Lake City, UT 84112-0110, USA
| | - Rod Linn
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, P.O. Box 1663, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA
| | - Yongqiang Liu
- US Forest Service Southern Research Station, 320 Green St., Athens, GA 30602-2044, USA
| | - Brian Potter
- US Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station, Pacific Wildland Fire Sciences Laboratory, Suite 201, Seattle, WA 98103, USA
| | - William Mell
- US Forest Service Pacific Northwest Research Station, Pacific Wildland Fire Sciences Laboratory, Suite 201, Seattle, WA 98103, USA
| | - Danielle Tanzer
- Michigan Technological University, 3600 Green Court, Suite 100, Ann Arbor, MI 48105, USA
| | - Shawn Urbanski
- US Forest Service Missoula Fire Sciences Laboratory, 5775 US Highway 10 W Missoula, MT 59808-9361, USA
| | - Adam Watts
- Desert Research Institute, 2215 Raggio Parkway, Reno, NV 89512, USA
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Liu Y, Kochanski A, Baker KR, Mell W, Linn R, Paugam R, Mandel J, Fournier A, Jenkins MA, Goodrick S, Achtemeier G, Zhao F, Ottmar R, French NHF, Larkin N, Brown T, Hudak A, Dickinson M, Potter B, Clements C, Urbanski S, Prichard S, Watts A, McNamara D. Fire behavior and smoke modeling: Model improvement and measurement needs for next-generation smoke research and forecasting systems. Int J Wildland Fire 2019; 28:570. [PMID: 32632343 PMCID: PMC7336523 DOI: 10.1071/wf18204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
There is an urgent need for next-generation smoke research and forecasting (SRF) systems to meet the challenges of the growing air quality, health, and safety concerns associated with wildland fire emissions. This review paper presents simulations and experiments of hypothetical prescribed burns with a suite of selected fire behavior and smoke models and identifies major issues for model improvement and the most critical observational needs. The results are used to understand the new and improved capability required for the next-generation SRF systems and to support the design of the Fire and Smoke Model Evaluation Experiment (FASMEE) and other field campaigns. The next-generation SRF systems should have more coupling of fire, smoke, and atmospheric processes to better simulate and forecast vertical smoke distributions and multiple sub-plumes, dynamical and high-resolution fire processes, and local and regional smoke chemistry during day and night. The development of the coupling capability requires comprehensive and spatially and temporally integrated measurements across the various disciplines to characterize flame and energy structure (e.g., individual cells, vertical heat profile and the height of well mixing flaming gases), smoke structure (vertical distributions and multiple sub-plumes), ambient air processes (smoke eddy, entrainment and radiative effects of smoke aerosols), fire emissions (for different fuel types and combustion conditions from flaming to residual smoldering), as well as night-time processes (smoke drainage and super-fog formation).
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Miranda AI, Martins V, Cascão P, Amorim JH, Valente J, Borrego C, Ferreira AJ, Cordeiro CR, Viegas DX, Ottmar R. Wildland smoke exposure values and exhaled breath indicators in firefighters. J Toxicol Environ Health A 2012; 75:831-843. [PMID: 22788370 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2012.690686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Smoke from forest fires contains significant amounts of gaseous and particulate pollutants. Firefighters exposed to wildland fire smoke can suffer from several acute and chronic adverse health effects. Consequently, exposure data are of vital importance for the establishment of cause/effect relationships between exposure to smoke and firefighter health effects. The aims of this study were to (1) characterize the relationship between wildland smoke exposure and medical parameters and (2) identify health effects pertinent to wildland forest fire smoke exposure. In this study, firefighter exposure levels of carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), and volatile organic compounds (VOC) were measured in wildfires during three fire seasons in Portugal. Personal monitoring devices were used to measure exposure. Firefighters were also tested for exhaled nitric oxide (eNO) and CO before and after their firefighting activities. Data indicated that exposure levels during firefighting activities were beyond limits recommended by the Occupational Exposure Standard (OES) values. Medical tests conducted on the firefighters also indicated a considerable effect on measured medical parameters, with a significant increase in CO and decrease in NO in exhaled air of majority of the firefighters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Isabel Miranda
- CESAM & Department of Environment and Planning, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal.
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French NHF, de Groot WJ, Jenkins LK, Rogers BM, Alvarado E, Amiro B, de Jong B, Goetz S, Hoy E, Hyer E, Keane R, Law BE, McKenzie D, McNulty SG, Ottmar R, Pérez-Salicrup DR, Randerson J, Robertson KM, Turetsky M. Model comparisons for estimating carbon emissions from North American wildland fire. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1029/2010jg001469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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McIver J, Adams P, Doyal J, Drews E, Hartsough B, Kellogg L, Niwa C, Ottmar R, Peck R, Taratoot M, Torgersen T, Youngblood A. Environmental Effects and Economics of Mechanized Logging for Fuel Reduction in Northeastern Oregon Mixed-Conifer Stands. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1093/wjaf/18.4.238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Fuel reduction by mechanical thinning and removal was studied in mixed-conifer stands in northeastern Oregon between 1995 and 1997. A single-grip harvester was coupled with either a forwarder or a skyline yarding system, and operational economics, fuel reduction, stand damage, soil disturbance, effects on soil biota and down-woody material were measured in three replicates of paired stands. After logging with the harvester, the two log-extraction systems achieved nearly equivalent fuel reduction with 45.7 and 46.8% mass reduction by the forwarder and skyline system, respectively. Fine-woody fuel increased slightly in all units, but mass of heavy fuels decreased. Most mass reduction in the forest floor occurred in the duff layer with 56 and 49% reduction in forwarder and skyline units, respectively. Reduction in stem density and basal area were similar for the two extraction systems; in forwarder units stem density was reduced by 61.6% and basal area by 55.4%, while in skyline units stem density was reduced by 66.5% and basal area by 51.1%. Of seedlings and trees examined, 32% had noticeable damage after harvest. Damage included bole wounding (38.9% of damaged stems), bark scraping (35.0%), wrenched stems (28.9%), broken branches (26.5%), broken terminal leaders (15.4%), and crushed foliage (4.1%). More damage occurred to residual large trees than to seedlings. Both log-extraction systems met the silvicultural prescription of reducing fuel and protecting residual large-diameter western larch, Engelmann spruce, Douglas-fir, and lodgepole pine. While fuel, stem, and basal area reduction lowered fire risk from a model 10 to a model 8 in all stands, large-woody material for wildlife also changed. Mean log length was lower in harvested units relative to unharvested controls, but this did not decrease occupation of logs by ants or the activities of woodpeckers feeding on them. Of 37 logged hectares, 1.4% (0.5 ha) of the soil area was compacted, mostly in forwarder units, within landings, and within trails close to landings. The percent area with displaced soil varied from 5 to 43% among units and was located within trails or in intertrail areas between the trails. Light displacement of soil resulted in a short-term increase in the abundance of soil microarthropods. The effects of compaction on litter microarthropods was more persistent, with lower numbers in compacted litter a year after harvest. While revenue was similar for forwarder and skyline units ($68 vs. $70/metric ton, respectively), total operational costs were $81/metric ton in the skyline units, compared to $46/metric ton in the forwarder units. These results are discussed in the context of options available to managers for balancing fuel reduction needs with both environmental and economic constraints. West. J. Appl. For. 18(4):238–249.
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Affiliation(s)
- J.D. McIver
- Forestry and Range Sciences Lab, PNW Research Station, USDA Forest Service, 1401 Gekeler Lane, La Grande, OR 97850
| | - P.W. Adams
- Department of Forest Engineering, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 97331
| | - J.A. Doyal
- Department of Forest Engineering, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, 97331
| | - E.S. Drews
- Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616
| | - B.R. Hartsough
- Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616
| | - L.D. Kellogg
- Department of Forest Engineering, OR State University, Corvallis, OR, 97331
| | - C.G. Niwa
- Forestry Sciences Lab, PNW Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331
| | - R. Ottmar
- Forestry Sciences Lab, PNW Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Seattle, WA 98105
| | - R. Peck
- Forestry Sciences Lab, PNW Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Jefferson Way, Corvallis, OR 97331
| | - M. Taratoot
- Public Works Department, P.O. Box 1083, Corvallis, OR 97339
| | - T. Torgersen
- Forestry and Range Sciences Lab, PNW Research Station, USDA Forest Service, 1401 Gekeler Lane, La Grande, OR, 97850
| | - A. Youngblood
- Forestry and Range Sciences Lab, PNW Research Station, USDA Forest Service, 1401 Gekeler Lane, La Grande, OR, 97850
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