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Nguyen R, Seguin RP, Ross DH, Chen P, Richardson S, Liem J, Lin YS, Xu L. Development and Application of a Multidimensional Database for the Detection of Quaternary Ammonium Compounds and Their Phase I Hepatic Metabolites in Humans. Environ Sci Technol 2024; 58:6236-6249. [PMID: 38534032 PMCID: PMC11008582 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c10845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 03/06/2024] [Accepted: 03/08/2024] [Indexed: 03/28/2024]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has led to significantly increased human exposure to the widely used disinfectants quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs). Xenobiotic metabolism serves a critical role in the clearance of environmental molecules, yet limited data are available on the routes of QAC metabolism or metabolite levels in humans. To address this gap and to advance QAC biomonitoring capabilities, we analyzed 19 commonly used QACs and their phase I metabolites by liquid chromatography-ion mobility-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-IM-MS/MS). In vitro generation of QAC metabolites by human liver microsomes produced a series of oxidized metabolites, with metabolism generally occurring on the alkyl chain group, as supported by MS/MS fragmentation. Discernible trends were observed in the gas-phase IM behavior of QAC metabolites, which, despite their increased mass, displayed smaller collision cross-section (CCS) values than those of their respective parent compounds. We then constructed a multidimensional reference SQLite database consisting of m/z, CCS, retention time (rt), and MS/MS spectra for 19 parent QACs and 81 QAC metabolites. Using this database, we confidently identified 13 parent QACs and 35 metabolites in de-identified human fecal samples. This is the first study to integrate in vitro metabolite biosynthesis with LC-IM-MS/MS for the simultaneous monitoring of parent QACs and their metabolites in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan Nguyen
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Ryan P. Seguin
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Dylan H. Ross
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Pengyu Chen
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Sean Richardson
- Department
of Mathematics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Jennifer Liem
- Department
of Pharmaceutics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Yvonne S. Lin
- Department
of Pharmaceutics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Libin Xu
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
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2
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Vieira LS, Seguin RP, Xu L, Wang J. Interaction and Transport of Benzalkonium Chlorides by the Organic Cation and Multidrug and Toxin Extrusion Transporters. Drug Metab Dispos 2024; 52:312-321. [PMID: 38307853 PMCID: PMC10955720 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.123.001625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Revised: 01/28/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Humans are chronically exposed to benzalkonium chlorides (BACs) from environmental sources. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has recently called for additional BAC safety data, as these compounds are cytotoxic and have great potential for biochemical interactions. Biodistribution studies revealed that BACs extensively distribute to many tissues and accumulate at high levels, especially in the kidneys, but the underlying mechanisms are unclear. In this study, we characterized the interactions of BACs of varying alkyl chain length (C8 to C14) with the human organic cation transporters (hOCT1-3) and multidrug and toxin extrusion proteins (hMATE1/2K) with the goal to identify transporters that could be involved in BAC disposition. Using transporter-expressing cell lines, we showed that all BACs are inhibitors of hOCT1-3 and hMATE1/2K (IC50 ranging 0.83-25.8 μM). Further, the short-chain BACs (C8 and C10) were identified as substrates of these transporters. Interestingly, although BAC C8 displayed typical Michaelis-Menten kinetics, C10 demonstrated a more complex substrate-inhibition profile. Transwell studies with transfected Madin-Darby canine kidney cells revealed that intracellular accumulation of basally applied BAC C8 and C10 was substantially higher (8.2- and 3.7-fold, respectively) in hOCT2/hMATE1 double-transfected cells in comparison with vector-transfected cells, supporting a role of these transporters in mediating renal accumulation of these compounds in vivo. Together, our results suggest that BACs interact with hOCT1-3 and hMATE1/2K as both inhibitors and substrates and that these transporters may play important roles in tissue-specific accumulation and potential toxicity of short-chain BACs. Our findings have important implications for understanding human exposure and susceptibility to BACs due to environmental exposure. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Humans are systemically exposed to benzalkonium chlorides (BACs). These compounds broadly distribute through tissues, and their safety has been questioned by the FDA. Our results demonstrate that hOCT2 and hMATE1 contribute to the renal accumulation of BAC C8 and C10 and that hOCT1 and hOCT3 may be involved in the tissue distribution of these compounds. These findings can improve our understanding of BAC disposition and toxicology in humans, as their accumulation could lead to biochemical interactions and deleterious effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Letícia Salvador Vieira
- Department of Pharmaceutics (L.S.V., J.W.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry (R.P.S., L.X.), and Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health (L.X.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Ryan P Seguin
- Department of Pharmaceutics (L.S.V., J.W.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry (R.P.S., L.X.), and Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health (L.X.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Libin Xu
- Department of Pharmaceutics (L.S.V., J.W.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry (R.P.S., L.X.), and Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health (L.X.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
| | - Joanne Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutics (L.S.V., J.W.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry (R.P.S., L.X.), and Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, School of Public Health (L.X.), University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
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3
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Arnold W, Blum A, Branyan J, Bruton TA, Carignan CC, Cortopassi G, Datta S, DeWitt J, Doherty AC, Halden RU, Harari H, Hartmann EM, Hrubec TC, Iyer S, Kwiatkowski CF, LaPier J, Li D, Li L, Muñiz Ortiz JG, Salamova A, Schettler T, Seguin RP, Soehl A, Sutton R, Xu L, Zheng G. Quaternary Ammonium Compounds: A Chemical Class of Emerging Concern. Environ Sci Technol 2023; 57:7645-7665. [PMID: 37157132 PMCID: PMC10210541 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c08244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs), a large class of chemicals that includes high production volume substances, have been used for decades as antimicrobials, preservatives, and antistatic agents and for other functions in cleaning, disinfecting, personal care products, and durable consumer goods. QAC use has accelerated in response to the COVID-19 pandemic and the banning of 19 antimicrobials from several personal care products by the US Food and Drug Administration in 2016. Studies conducted before and after the onset of the pandemic indicate increased human exposure to QACs. Environmental releases of these chemicals have also increased. Emerging information on adverse environmental and human health impacts of QACs is motivating a reconsideration of the risks and benefits across the life cycle of their production, use, and disposal. This work presents a critical review of the literature and scientific perspective developed by a multidisciplinary, multi-institutional team of authors from academia, governmental, and nonprofit organizations. The review evaluates currently available information on the ecological and human health profile of QACs and identifies multiple areas of potential concern. Adverse ecological effects include acute and chronic toxicity to susceptible aquatic organisms, with concentrations of some QACs approaching levels of concern. Suspected or known adverse health outcomes include dermal and respiratory effects, developmental and reproductive toxicity, disruption of metabolic function such as lipid homeostasis, and impairment of mitochondrial function. QACs' role in antimicrobial resistance has also been demonstrated. In the US regulatory system, how a QAC is managed depends on how it is used, for example in pesticides or personal care products. This can result in the same QACs receiving different degrees of scrutiny depending on the use and the agency regulating it. Further, the US Environmental Protection Agency's current method of grouping QACs based on structure, first proposed in 1988, is insufficient to address the wide range of QAC chemistries, potential toxicities, and exposure scenarios. Consequently, exposures to common mixtures of QACs and from multiple sources remain largely unassessed. Some restrictions on the use of QACs have been implemented in the US and elsewhere, primarily focused on personal care products. Assessing the risks posed by QACs is hampered by their vast structural diversity and a lack of quantitative data on exposure and toxicity for the majority of these compounds. This review identifies important data gaps and provides research and policy recommendations for preserving the utility of QAC chemistries while also seeking to limit adverse environmental and human health effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- William
A. Arnold
- University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Arlene Blum
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
- University
of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Jennifer Branyan
- California
Department of Toxic Substances Control, Sacramento, California 95814, United States
| | - Thomas A. Bruton
- California
Department of Toxic Substances Control, Sacramento, California 95814, United States
| | | | - Gino Cortopassi
- University
of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Sandipan Datta
- University
of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Jamie DeWitt
- East
Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27834, United States
| | - Anne-Cooper Doherty
- California
Department of Toxic Substances Control, Sacramento, California 95814, United States
| | - Rolf U. Halden
- Arizona
State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
| | - Homero Harari
- Icahn
School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York 10029, United States
| | | | - Terry C. Hrubec
- Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine, Blacksburg, Virginia 24060, United States
| | - Shoba Iyer
- California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, Oakland, California 94612, United States
| | - Carol F. Kwiatkowski
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
- North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina 27695 United States
| | - Jonas LaPier
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
| | - Dingsheng Li
- University
of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557, United States
| | - Li Li
- University
of Nevada, Reno, Nevada 89557, United States
| | | | - Amina Salamova
- Indiana University, Atlanta, Georgia 30322, United States
| | - Ted Schettler
- Science and Environmental Health Network, Bolinas, California 94924, United States
| | - Ryan P. Seguin
- University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Anna Soehl
- Green
Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, United States
| | - Rebecca Sutton
- San Francisco Estuary Institute, Richmond, California 94804, United States
| | - Libin Xu
- University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Guomao Zheng
- Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, Guangdong 518055, China
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4
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Ross D, Seguin RP, Krinsky AM, Xu L. High-Throughput Measurement and Machine Learning-Based Prediction of Collision Cross Sections for Drugs and Drug Metabolites. J Am Soc Mass Spectrom 2022; 33:1061-1072. [PMID: 35548857 PMCID: PMC9165597 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.2c00111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Drug metabolite identification is a bottleneck of drug metabolism studies due to the need for time-consuming chromatographic separation and structural confirmation. Ion mobility-mass spectrometry (IM-MS), on the other hand, separates analytes on a rapid (millisecond) time scale and enables the measurement of collision cross section (CCS), a unique physical property related to an ion's gas-phase size and shape, which can be used as an additional parameter for identification of unknowns. A current limitation to the application of IM-MS to the identification of drug metabolites is the lack of reference CCS values. In this work, we assembled a large-scale database of drug and drug metabolite CCS values using high-throughput in vitro drug metabolite generation and a rapid IM-MS analysis with automated data processing. Subsequently, we used this database to train a machine learning-based CCS prediction model, employing a combination of conventional 2D molecular descriptors and novel 3D descriptors, achieving high prediction accuracies (0.8-2.2% median relative error on test set data). The inclusion of 3D information in the prediction model enables the prediction of different CCS values for different protomers, conformers, and positional isomers, which is not possible using conventional 2D descriptors. The prediction models, dmCCS, are available at https://CCSbase.net/dmccs_predictions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Libin Xu
- . Tel: (206) 543-1080. Fax: (206) 685-3252
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5
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Abdelhamid L, Cabana-Puig X, Mu Q, Moarefian M, Swartwout B, Eden K, Das P, Seguin RP, Xu L, Lowen S, Lavani M, Hrubec TC, Jones CN, Luo XM. Quaternary Ammonium Compound Disinfectants Reduce Lupus-Associated Splenomegaly by Targeting Neutrophil Migration and T-Cell Fate. The Journal of Immunology 2021. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.206.supp.60.02] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/10/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Hypersensitivity reactions and immune dysregulation have been reported with the use of quaternary ammonium compound disinfectants (QACs). We hypothesized that QAC exposure would exacerbate autoimmunity associated with systemic lupus erythematosus (lupus). Surprisingly, however, we found that compared to QAC-free mice, ambient exposure of lupus-prone mice to QACs led to smaller spleens with no change in circulating autoantibodies or the severity of glomerulonephritis. This suggests that QACs may have immunosuppressive effects on lupus. Using a microfluidic device, we showed that ambient exposure to QACs reduced directional migration of bone marrow-derived neutrophils toward an inflammatory chemoattractant ex vivo. Consistent with this, we found decreased infiltration of neutrophils into the spleen. While bone marrow-derived neutrophils appeared to exhibit a pro-inflammatory profile, upregulated expression of PD-L1 was observed on neutrophils that infiltrated the spleen, which in turn interacted with PD-1 on T cells and modulated their fate. Specifically, QAC exposure hindered activation of splenic T cells and increased apoptosis of effector T-cell populations. Collectively, these results suggest that ambient QAC exposure decreases lupus-associated splenomegaly likely through neutrophil-mediated toning of T-cell activation and/or apoptosis. However, our findings also indicate that even ambient exposure could alter immune cell phenotypes, functions, and their fate. Further investigations on how QACs affect immunity under steady-state conditions are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Prerna Das
- 1Virginia Polytechnic Inst. and State Univ
| | | | - Libin Xu
- 3Sch. of Pharmacy, Univ. of Washington
| | - Sarah Lowen
- 4Edward Via Col. of Osteo. Med.-Virginia Campus
| | | | | | | | - Xin M. Luo
- 1Virginia Polytechnic Inst. and State Univ
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6
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Hrubec TC, Seguin RP, Xu L, Cortopassi GA, Datta S, Hanlon AL, Lozano AJ, McDonald VA, Healy CA, Anderson TC, Musse NA, Williams RT. Altered toxicological endpoints in humans from common quaternary ammonium compound disinfectant exposure. Toxicol Rep 2021; 8:646-656. [PMID: 33868951 PMCID: PMC8041661 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxrep.2021.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans are frequently exposed to Quaternary Ammonium Compounds (QACs). QACs are ubiquitously used in medical settings, restaurants, and homes as cleaners and disinfectants. Despite their prevalence, nothing is known about the health effects associated with chronic low-level exposure. Chronic QAC toxicity, only recently identified in mice, resulted in developmental, reproductive, and immune dysfunction. Cell based studies indicate increased inflammation, decreased mitochondrial function, and disruption of cholesterol synthesis. If these findings translate to human toxicity, multiple physiological processes could be affected. This study tested whether QAC concentrations could be detected in the blood of 43 human volunteers, and whether QAC concentrations influenced markers of inflammation, mitochondrial function, and cholesterol synthesis. QAC concentrations were detected in 80 % of study participants. Blood QACs were associated with increase in inflammatory cytokines, decreased mitochondrial function, and disruption of cholesterol homeostasis in a dose dependent manner. This is the first study to measure QACs in human blood, and also the first to demonstrate statistically significant relationships between blood QAC and meaningful health related biomarkers. Additionally, the results are timely in light of the increased QAC disinfectant exposure occurring due to the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. MAIN FINDINGS This study found that 80 % of study participants contained QACs in their blood; and that markers of inflammation, mitochondrial function, and sterol homeostasis varied with blood QAC concentration.
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Key Words
- 7-DHC, 7-Dehydrocholesterol
- 7-DHD, 7-Dehydrodesmosterol
- 8-DHC, 8-Dehydrocholesterol
- ADBAC, alkyldimethylbenzyl ammonium chloride
- ANOVA, analysis of variance
- BAC, benzalkonium chloride
- CRP, C-reactive protein
- DDAC, didecyldimethyl ammonium chloride
- Environmental toxicology
- FCCP, trifluoromethoxy carbonylcyanide phenylhydrazone
- IL-10, interleukin 10
- IL-12, interleukin 12
- IL-6, interleukin 6
- IRB, Institutional Review Board
- Inflammation
- LC, liquid chromatography
- LOD, level of detection
- LOQ, level of quantification
- LPS, lipopolysaccharide
- Lipid metabolism
- Mitochondrial function
- NF-κB, nuclear factor kappa beta
- NOEL, no effect level
- OCR, oxygen consumption rate
- OEL, occupational exposure limit
- QAC, quaternary ammonium compounds
- Quaternary ammonium compounds
- TNFα, tumor necrosis factor alpha
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Affiliation(s)
- Terry C. Hrubec
- Department of Biomedical Science, E. Via College of Osteopathic Medicine – Virginia, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
- Department of Biomedical Science and Pathobiology, VA-MD College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA
| | - Ryan P. Seguin
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Libin Xu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
| | - Gino A. Cortopassi
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California – Davis, Davis, CA, 95618, USA
| | - Sandipan Datta
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California – Davis, Davis, CA, 95618, USA
| | - Alexandra L. Hanlon
- Center for Biostatistics and Health Data Science, Department of Statistics, College of Science, Virginia Tech, Riverside Circle, Roanoke, VA, 24016, USA
| | - Alicia J. Lozano
- Center for Biostatistics and Health Data Science, Department of Statistics, College of Science, Virginia Tech, Riverside Circle, Roanoke, VA, 24016, USA
| | - Valerie A. McDonald
- Department of Biomedical Science, E. Via College of Osteopathic Medicine – Virginia, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Claire A. Healy
- Department of Biomedical Science, E. Via College of Osteopathic Medicine – Virginia, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Tyler C. Anderson
- Department of Biomedical Science, E. Via College of Osteopathic Medicine – Virginia, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Najaha A. Musse
- Department of Biomedical Science, E. Via College of Osteopathic Medicine – Virginia, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
| | - Richard T. Williams
- Department of Biomedical Science, E. Via College of Osteopathic Medicine – Virginia, Blacksburg, VA, 24060, USA
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7
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Do Q, Lee DD, Dinh AN, Seguin RP, Zhang R, Xu L. Development and Application of a Peroxyl Radical Clock Approach for Measuring Both Hydrogen-Atom Transfer and Peroxyl Radical Addition Rate Constants. J Org Chem 2020; 86:153-168. [PMID: 33269585 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.0c01920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The rate-determining step in free radical lipid peroxidation is the propagation of the peroxyl radical, where generally two types of reactions occur: (a) hydrogen-atom transfer (HAT) from a donor to the peroxyl radical; (b) peroxyl radical addition (PRA) to a "C═C" double bond. Peroxyl radical clocks have been used to determine the rate constants of HAT reactions (kH), but no radical clock is available to measure the rate constants of PRA reactions (kadd). In this work, we modified the analytical approach on the linoleate-based peroxyl radical clock to enable the simultaneous measurement of both kH and kadd. Compared to the original approach, this new approach involves the use of a strong reducing agent, LiAlH4, to completely reduce both HAT and PRA-derived products and the relative quantitation of total linoleate oxidation products with or without reduction. The new approach was then applied to measuring the kH and kadd values for several series of organic substrates, including para- and meta-substituted styrenes, substituted conjugated dienes, and cyclic alkenes. Furthermore, the kH and kadd values for a variety of biologically important lipids were determined for the first time, including conjugated fatty acids, sterols, coenzyme Q10, and lipophilic vitamins, such as vitamins D3 and A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quynh Do
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - David D Lee
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Andrew N Dinh
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Ryan P Seguin
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Rutan Zhang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Libin Xu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
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8
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Abdelhamid L, Cabana-Puig X, Mu Q, Moarefian M, Swartwout B, Eden K, Das P, Seguin RP, Xu L, Lowen S, Lavani M, Hrubec TC, Jones CN, Luo XM. Quaternary Ammonium Compound Disinfectants Reduce Lupus-Associated Splenomegaly by Targeting Neutrophil Migration and T-Cell Fate. Front Immunol 2020; 11:575179. [PMID: 33193366 PMCID: PMC7609861 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.575179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypersensitivity reactions and immune dysregulation have been reported with the use of quaternary ammonium compound disinfectants (QACs). We hypothesized that QAC exposure would exacerbate autoimmunity associated with systemic lupus erythematosus (lupus). Surprisingly, however, we found that compared to QAC-free mice, ambient exposure of lupus-prone mice to QACs led to smaller spleens with no change in circulating autoantibodies or the severity of glomerulonephritis. This suggests that QACs may have immunosuppressive effects on lupus. Using a microfluidic device, we showed that ambient exposure to QACs reduced directional migration of bone marrow-derived neutrophils toward an inflammatory chemoattractant ex vivo. Consistent with this, we found decreased infiltration of neutrophils into the spleen. While bone marrow-derived neutrophils appeared to exhibit a pro-inflammatory profile, upregulated expression of PD-L1 was observed on neutrophils that infiltrated the spleen, which in turn interacted with PD-1 on T cells and modulated their fate. Specifically, QAC exposure hindered activation of splenic T cells and increased apoptosis of effector T-cell populations. Collectively, these results suggest that ambient QAC exposure decreases lupus-associated splenomegaly likely through neutrophil-mediated toning of T-cell activation and/or apoptosis. However, our findings also indicate that even ambient exposure could alter immune cell phenotypes, functions, and their fate. Further investigations on how QACs affect immunity under steady-state conditions are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leila Abdelhamid
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Xavier Cabana-Puig
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Qinghui Mu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
- School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Maryam Moarefian
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Brianna Swartwout
- Translational Biology, Medicine and Health Graduate Program, Virginia Tech, Roanoke, VA, United States
| | - Kristin Eden
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Prerna Das
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Ryan P. Seguin
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Libin Xu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Sarah Lowen
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine-Virginia Campus, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Mital Lavani
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine-Virginia Campus, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Terry C. Hrubec
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, Edward Via College of Osteopathic Medicine-Virginia Campus, Blacksburg, VA, United States
| | - Caroline N. Jones
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Texas, Dallas, TX, United States
| | - Xin M. Luo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Pathobiology, Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, United States
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9
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Abstract
Benzalkonium chlorides (BACs) are widely used as disinfectants in cleaning products, medical products, and the food processing industry. Despite a wide range of reported toxicities, limited studies have been conducted on the metabolism of these compounds in animal models and none in human-derived cells or tissues. In this work, we report on the metabolism of BACs in human liver microsomes (HLM) and by recombinant human hepatic cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes. BAC metabolism in HLM was NADPH-dependent and displayed apparent half-lives that increased with BAC alkyl chain length (C10 < C12 < C14 < C16), suggesting enhanced metabolic stability of the more lipophilic, longer chain BACs. Metabolites of d7-benzyl labeled BAC substrates retained all deuteriums and there was no evidence of N-dealkylation. Tandem mass spectrometry fragmentation of BAC metabolites confirmed that oxidation occurs on the alkyl chain region. Major metabolites of C10-BAC were identified as ω-hydroxy-, (ω-1)-hydroxy-, (ω, ω-1)-diol-, (ω-1)-ketone-, and ω-carboxylic acid-C10-BAC by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry comparison with synthetic standards. In a screen of hepatic CYP isoforms, recombinant CYP2D6, CYP4F2, and CYP4F12 consumed substantial quantities of BAC substrates and produced the major microsomal metabolites. The use of potent pan-CYP4 inhibitor HET0016, the specific CYP2D6 inhibitor quinidine, or both confirmed major contributions of CYP4- and CYP2D6-mediated metabolism in the microsomal disappearance of BACs. Kinetic characterization of C10-BAC metabolite formation in HLM demonstrated robust Michaelis-Menten kinetic parameters for ω-hydroxylation (Vmax = 380 pmol/min/mg, Km = 0.69 μM) and (ω-1)-hydroxylation (Vmax = 126 pmol/min/mg, Km = 0.13 μM) reactions. This work illustrates important roles for CYP4-mediated ω-hydroxylation and CYP2D6/CYP4-mediated (ω-1)-hydroxylation during the hepatic elimination of BACs, an environmental contaminant of emerging concern. Furthermore, we demonstrate that CYP-mediated oxidation of C10-BAC mitigates the potent inhibition of cholesterol biosynthesis exhibited by this short-chain BAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan P. Seguin
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy,
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Josi M. Herron
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health
Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
98195
| | - Vanessa Lopez
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy,
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
| | - Joseph L. Dempsey
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health
Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
98195
| | - Libin Xu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy,
University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health
Sciences, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington
98195
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10
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Ross DH, Seguin RP, Xu L. Characterization of the Impact of Drug Metabolism on the Gas-Phase Structures of Drugs Using Ion Mobility-Mass Spectrometry. Anal Chem 2019; 91:14498-14507. [PMID: 31613088 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b03292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Conventional strategies for drug metabolite identification employ a combination of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), which offers higher throughput but provides limited structural information, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, which can achieves the most definitive identification but lacks throughput. Ion mobility-mass spectrometry (IM-MS) is a rapid, two-dimensional analysis that separates ions on the basis of their gas-phase size and shape (reflected by collision cross section, CCS) and their mass-to-charge (m/z) ratios. The rapid nature of IM separation combined with the structural information provided by CCS make IM-MS a promising technique for obtaining more structural information on drug metabolites without sacrificing analytical throughput. Here, we present an in vitro biosynthesis coupled with IM-MS strategy for rapid generation and analysis of drug metabolites. Drug metabolites were generated in vitro using pooled subcellular fractions derived from human liver and analyzed using a rapid flow injection-IM-MS method. We measured CCS values for 19 parent drugs and their 37 metabolites generated in vitro (78 values in total), representing a wide variety of metabolic modifications. Post-IM fragmentation and computational modeling were used to support metabolite identifications and explore the structural characteristics driving behaviors observed in IM separation. Overall, we found the effects of metabolic modifications on the gas-phase structures of the metabolites to be highly dependent upon the structural characteristics of the parent compounds and the specific position of the modification. This in vitro biosynthesis coupled with rapid IM-MS analysis workflow represents a promising platform for rapid and high-confidence identification of drug metabolites, applicable at a large scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dylan H Ross
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry , University of Washington , Seattle , Washington 98195 , United States
| | - Ryan P Seguin
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry , University of Washington , Seattle , Washington 98195 , United States
| | - Libin Xu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry , University of Washington , Seattle , Washington 98195 , United States
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11
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Herron JM, Hines KM, Tomita H, Seguin RP, Cui JY, Xu L. Multi-omics investigation reveals benzalkonium chloride disinfectants alter sterol and lipid homeostasis in the mouse neonatal brain. Toxicol Sci 2019; 171:32-45. [PMID: 31199489 PMCID: PMC6736422 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfz139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2019] [Revised: 05/23/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipids are critical for neurodevelopment; therefore, disruption of lipid homeostasis by environmental chemicals is expected to have detrimental effects on this process. Previously, we demonstrated that the benzalkonium chlorides (BACs), a class of commonly used disinfectants, alter cholesterol biosynthesis and lipid homeostasis in neuronal cell cultures in a manner dependent on their alkyl chain length. However, the ability of BACs to reach the neonatal brain and alter sterol and lipid homeostasis during neurodevelopment in vivo has not been characterized. Therefore, the goal of this study was to use targeted and untargeted mass spectrometry and transcriptomics to investigate the effect of BACs on sterol and lipid homeostasis, and to predict the mechanism of toxicity of BACs on neurodevelopmental processes. After maternal dietary exposure to 120 mg BAC/kg body weight/day, we quantified BAC levels in the mouse neonatal brain, demonstrating for the first time that BACs can cross the blood-placental barrier and enter the developing brain. Transcriptomic analysis of neonatal brains using RNA sequencing revealed alterations in canonical pathways related to cholesterol biosynthesis, liver X receptor-retinoid X receptor (LXR/RXR) signaling, and glutamate receptor signaling. Mass spectrometry analysis revealed decreases in total sterol levels and downregulation of triglycerides and diglycerides, which were consistent with the upregulation of genes involved in sterol biosynthesis and uptake as well as inhibition of LXR signaling. In conclusion, these findings demonstrate that BACs target sterol and lipid homeostasis and provide new insights for the possible mechanisms of action of BACs as developmental neurotoxicants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josi M Herron
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Kelly M Hines
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Hideaki Tomita
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Ryan P Seguin
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Julia Yue Cui
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
| | - Libin Xu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA.,Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA
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12
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Zhang N, Seguin RP, Kunze KL, Zhang YY, Jeong H. Characterization of inhibition kinetics of (S)-warfarin hydroxylation by noscapine: implications in warfarin therapy. Drug Metab Dispos 2013; 41:2114-23. [PMID: 24046330 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.113.053330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Noscapine is an antitussive and potential anticancer drug. Clinically significant interactions between warfarin and noscapine have been previously reported. In this study, to provide a basis for warfarin dosage adjustment, the inhibition kinetics of noscapine against warfarin metabolism was characterized. Our enzyme kinetics data obtained from human liver microsomes and recombinant CYP2C9 proteins indicate that noscapine is a competitive inhibitor of the (S)-warfarin 7-hydroxylation reaction by CYP2C9. Interestingly, noscapine also inhibited (S)-warfarin metabolism in a NADPH- and time-dependent manner, and removal of unbound noscapine and its metabolites by ultrafiltration did not reverse inhibition of (S)-warfarin metabolism by noscapine, suggesting mechanism-based inhibition of CYP2C9 by noscapine. Spectral scanning of the reaction between CYP2C9 and noscapine revealed the formation of an absorption spectrum at 458 nm, indicating the formation of a metabolite-intermediate complex. Surprisingly, noscapine is a 2- to 3-fold more efficient inactivator of CYP2C9.2 and CYP2C9.3 variants than it is of the wild type, by unknown mechanisms. Based on the inhibitory kinetic data, (S)-warfarin exposure is predicted to increase up to 7-fold (depending on CYP2C9 genotypes) upon noscapine coadministration, mainly due to mechanism-based inactivation of CYP2C9 by noscapine. Together, these results indicate that mechanism-based inhibition of CYP2C9 by noscapine may dramatically alter pharmacokinetics of warfarin and provide a basis for warfarin dosage adjustment when noscapine is coadministered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Zhang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacognosy (N.Z.), Department of Pharmacy Practice (Y.-Y.Z., H.J.), and Department of Biopharmaceutical Sciences (H.J.), College of Pharmacy, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois; and Department of Medicinal Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington (R.P.S., K.L.K.)
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