Induction of Acute Lung Injury after Intranasal Administration of Toxin Botulinum A Complex

The inhalation of aerozolized botulinum toxin may represent a potential significant hazard to both military and civilian personnel. Since the lung is the primary target organ for inhaled toxin, the investigation reported herein was conducted to examine lung function in mice exposed to botulinum toxin A complex by intranasal route. Data includes lethality, symptomatology, measurement of respiratory function (minute ventilation, respiratory frequency, and tidal volume), and histopathology of the lungs. The clinical signs of intoxication are similar to those observed in foodborne botulism. Plethysmography revealed severe impairment of all respiratory parameters tested from 7 hours postexposure. Severe lung lesions, possibly secondary to the intoxication, were observed in mice who survived 14 days after the toxin challenge. These included intra-alveolar hemorrhage and interstitial edema. Mice immunized by the pentavalent (ABCDE) toxoid were protected against the neurotoxin (4 LD50) as revealed by the decrease of lethality and severity of nervous signs of intoxication, but not against histopathological changes in the lungs. These effects are nonspecific and require further experiments in order to specify the relationships between the pathology and the inflammatory process in the lung due to mediators such as cytokines, and possibly permanent physiological sequelae.

Effects of repeated low-dose soman exposure on monoamine levels in different brain structures in mice

In order to better understand the effects of repeated low-dose exposure to organophosphorus (OPs) on physiological and behavioural functions, we analysed the levels of endogenous monoamines (serotonin and dopamine) in different brain areas after repeated exposure of mice to sublethal dose of soman. Animals were injected once a day for 3 days with 0.12 LD50 of soman (47 microg/kg, i.p.). They did not show either severe signs of cholinergic toxicity or pathological changes in brain tissue. 24 h after the last injection of soman, inhibition of cholinesterase was similar in plasma and brain (32% and 37% of inhibition respectively). Afterwards, recovery of cholinesterase activity was faster in the plasma than in the brain. Dopamine levels were not significantly modified. On the other hand, we observed a significant modification of the serotoninergic system. An increase of the 5-HIAA/5-HT ratio was maintained for 2 and 4 weeks after exposure in the hippocampus and the striatum respectively. This study provides the first evidence of a modification of the 5-HT turnover in the hippocampus and the striatum after repeated low-dose intoxication with a nerve agent. Further experiments are necessary to evaluate the relationship between these modifications and the unexpected neuropsychological disorders usually reported after chronic exposure of organophosphorus.

Skin decontamination of mustards and organophosphates: comparative efficiency of RSDL and Fuller's earth in domestic swine

Research in skin decontamination and therapy of chemical warfare agents has been a difficult problem due to the simultaneous requirement of rapid action and non-aggressive behaviour. The aim of this study was to compare the performance of two decontaminating systems: the Canadian Reactive Skin Decontaminant Lotion (RSDL) and the Fuller's Earth (FE). The experiment was conducted with domestic swine, as a good model for extrapolation to human skin. RSDL and FE were tested against sulphur mustard (SM), a powerful vesicant, and VX, a potent and persistent cholinesterase inhibitor. When used 5 min after contamination, the results clearly showed that both systems were active against SM (10.1 mg/cm(2)) and VX (0.06 mg/cm(2)). The potency of the RSDL/sponge was statistically better than FE against skin injury induced by SM, observed 3 days post-exposure. RSDL was rather more efficient than FE in reducing the formation of perinuclear vacuoles and inflammation processes in the epidermis and dermis. Against a severe inhibition (67%) of plasmatic cholinesterases induced by VX poisoning, the potencies of the RSDL/sponge and FE were similar. Both systems completely prevented cholinesterase inhibition, which indirectly indicates a prevention of toxic absorption through the skin.

Protection against soman-induced neuropathology and respiratory failure: A comparison of the efficacy of diazepam and avizafone in guinea pig

The purpose of this study was to compare the efficacy of diazepam and the pro-diazepam avizafone in preventing the severity of soman-induced pathology in guinea pig. Survival, respiration and seizures of experimental animals were investigated with on-line monitoring of respiratory and EEG parameters. Guinea pigs were pretreated with pyridostigmine (0.1mg/kg i.m.) and 30 min later challenged with 1 or 2 LD50 soman. One minute after intoxication they were treated with atropine (3 or 33.8 mg/kg), pralidoxime chloride (32 mg/kg) and either diazepam (2 mg/kg), avizafone (3.5 mg/kg) or saline solution. The highest dose of atropine (33.8 mg/kg) gave a protective effect in groups treated without anticonvulsants by reducing the severity of clinical signs and death within 24 h but also by decreasing seizure occurrence and brain injuries. When injected at the similar molar dose of 7 micromoles/kg, the protection of anticonvulsants against soman neurotoxicity was higher with the atropine/pralidoxime/avizafone combination than with atropine/pralidoxime/diazepam. Indeed, when atropine was used at the lowest dose, avizafone was found to prevent early mortality and seizures occurrence with better efficacy than diazepam. On the other hand, when added to the therapy, the both anticonvulsants did not prevent the moderate EEG depression (reduction of amplitude by 30-52%) observed under 2 LD50 soman. Moreover, the number of animals suffering from respiratory distress (defined as a decrease of minute ventilation of more than 20% from the baseline value) was enhanced when diazepam or avizafone were used in the therapy. This effect was dependent on the atropine dose and the nature of the anticonvulsant. The beneficial effects of the different therapeutics tested were assessed and compared to the previous data obtained with the same therapies against sarin and from the pharmacokinetics properties of the atropine/diazepam mixture.

Peripheral ChE Inhibition Modulates Brain Monoamines Levels and c-fos Oncogene in Mice Subjected to a Stress Situation

The present study examined, in mice, whether regional patterns of brain monoamines concentrations (DA, 5-HT and their metabolites) and expression of c-Fos protein, that may represent a prolonged functional change in neurons, could be changed after a combined exposure to stress and the peripheral cholinesterase reversible inhibitor pyridostigmine (PYR). Animals were subjected every day to a random combination of mild unescapable electric footshocks and immobilization over a 12-day period, resulting in a significant increase of glucocorticoids levels and an activation of c-fos in hippocampus, thalamus and piriform cortex. This stress protocol induced a significant increase of 5-HT levels in striatum, hippocampus and ponto mesencephalic area (PMA) but failed to induce any DA activation. When PYR (0.2 mg/kg s.c. inducing 19-35% inhibition of the plasmatic ChE activity) was administered twice a day during the last 5 days of the stress session, 5-HIAA levels and expression of c-fos oncogene were significantly increased in the most of the brain areas studied. DA levels were also enhanced in striatum/hippocampus as a result of a possible activation of mesolimbic and nigrostriatal dopamine systems. Taken together, these results suggest that a combined exposure to certain stress conditions and PYR leads, in mice, to functional changes in neurons and may affect centrally controlled functions. The mechanisms underlying these modifications and their behavioral implications remain to be further investigated.

Comparative efficacy of diazepam and avizafone against sarin-induced neuropathology and respiratory failure in guinea pigs: influence of atropine dose

This investigation compared the efficacy of diazepam and the water-soluble prodiazepam-avizafone-in sarin poisoning therapy. Guinea pigs, pretreated with pyridostigmine 0.1 mg/kg, were intoxicated with 4LD(50) of sarin (s.c. route) and 1 min after intoxication treated by intramuscular injection of atropine (3 or 33.8 mg/kg), pralidoxime (32 mg/kg) and either diazepam (2 mg/kg) or avizafone (3.5 mg/kg). EEG and pneumo-physiological parameters were simultaneously recorded. When atropine was administered at a dose of 3 mg/kg, seizures were observed in 87.5% of the cases; if an anticonvulsant was added (diazepam (2 mg/kg) or avizafone (3.5 mg/kg)), seizure was prevented but respiratory disorders were observed. At 33.8 mg/kg, atropine markedly increased the seizure threshold and prevented early respiratory distress induced by sarin. When diazepam was administered together with atropine, seizures were not observed but 62.5% of the animals displayed respiratory difficulties. These symptoms were not observed when using avizafone. The pharmacokinetic data showed marked variation of the plasma levels of atropine and diazepam in different antidote combination groups, where groups receiving diazepam exhibited the lowest concentration of atropine in plasma. Taken together, the results indicate that avizafone is suitable in therapy against sarin when an anticonvulsant is judged necessary.

Effect of oleoresin capsicum (OC) and ortho-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile (CS) on ciliary beat frequency

Tear gases are largely used to control civil unrest. Their incapacitating effects involve the eyes, skin, and respiratory tract. We aimed to evaluate the effects of ortho-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile (CS) and oleoresin capsicum (OC) on ciliary beat frequency (CBF) of mouse tracheal rings. Addition of 0.05% OC or 0.01% CS induced a progressive decrease in CBF, from 11.5+/-0.5 to 4+/-0.1 Hz (P<0.05) and from 12.5+/-0.5 to 2.5+/-0.1 Hz (P<0.05), respectively, 30 min after exposure to the tear gas. Addition of exogenous ATP inhibited the effect of OC, suggesting that ATP could be used to counteract these adverse effects on CBF. However, ATP was inefficient against CS. Methylene blue and H7 inhibited the effects of OC, whereas indomethacin had no effect. None of these drugs affected the inhibitory action of CS. These results suggest that the inhibitory effect of OC is mediated through the guanylate cyclase-dependent pathway or protein kinase C-dependent phosphorylation. Another mechanism is probably involved in CS-induced inhibitory effect. Histological analysis of the trachea revealed an increase in mucus secretion after exposure to OC, and cytoplasmic vacuoles in epithelial cells after exposure to CS.

Plethysmography for the assessment of pneumococcal pneumonia and passive immunotherapy in a mouse model

The increasing prevalence of resistance to antibiotics of Streptococcus pneumoniae, the main causative agent of community-acquired bacterial pneumonia, necessitates the development of both new therapeutic strategies and noninvasive methods in order to evaluate their efficacy. The efficacy of passive immunotherapy with human intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG) or solvent alone, administered intranasally or intravenously, was evaluated in a mouse model of acute pneumonia. Lung bacterial load was also evaluated, using a classical but invasive method, as was respiratory function (minute ventilation, respiratory frequency and tidal volume) using plethysmography, a simple noninvasive method commonly used in inhalation toxicology, but not previously used to assess respiratory infection. Forty-eight hours after infectious challenge, the lung bacterial load was significantly lower in IVIG-treated mice than in untreated mice. At the same time, minute ventilation was significantly lower than reference values for untreated mice (36+/-3 versus 57+/-8 mL.min(-1), p<0.01, and 31+/-2 versus 50+/-5 mL.min(-1), p<0.01 for intranasal and intravenous administration of solvent, respectively) but not in mice treated with IVIG by either route of administration. Plethysmography therefore appears to be a simple and reliable test for the follow-up of acute respiratory infection.

Comparative acute toxicity of o-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile (CS) and oleoresin capsicum (OC) in awake rats

Tear gases are largely used to control civil unrest. Their incapaciting effects involve eyes, skin and respiratory tract. This study was performed to compare acute respiratory effects of o-chlorobenzylidene malononitrile (CS), oleoresin capsicum (OC) and their respective solvents in awake rats, using an integrated system of nose-only exposure and multiple monitoring of breathing. Aerosols were generated by a Collison Nebulizer from the solutions held in tear gas sprays. The reduction of minute ventilation, observed during a 5 min exposure, was significantly more important with CS than with OC: minute ventilation represented 29+/-8 and 50+/-6% of pre-exposure minute ventilation respectively (P<0.05). The reduction of minute ventilation observed with CS and OC solvents alone was not significantly different from that observed with the tear gases themselves. The decrease in minute ventilation observed, between the second and the fifth minute of exposure, was of the same level for repeated exposure separated by 24 h. Time necessary to recover to 80% of pre-exposure minute ventilation was not significantly different between the two tear gases: 722+/-272 and 691+/-262 s for CS and OC respectively (NS). Histological analysis of the trachea, performed at the end of exposures, revealed an increase in mucus secretion after exposure to OC and cytoplasmic vacuoles in epithelial cells after exposure to CS. In the lungs, interstitial oedema was observed after exposure to OC and emphysema after exposure to CS.

Airway epithelial damage and release of inflammatory mediators in human lung parenchyma after sulfur mustard exposure

This study was performed to evaluate the morphological effects of sulfur mustard on human lung parenchyma in vitro and to measure the metabolites of arachidonic acid which are released during acute exposure to the alkylating agent. Histological analysis of the tissue following exposure to sulfur mustard for a period of 45 min at 10 mM revealed the presence of paranuclear vacuoles in the epithelium, specifically, in the ciliated cells. The release of metabolites of arachidonic acid were determined in the bath fluids by an enzymo-immunoassay. The basal release of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2: 1.36 +/- 0.33 ng/g tissue) and 6-keto prostaglandin F1 alpha (6-keto PGF1 alpha: 8.83 +/- 1.17 ng/g tissue) were not modified during tissue exposure to sulfur mustard (45 min, 0.1 mM). In addition, the basal release of cysteinyl-leukotriene E4 (LTE4: 1.55 +/- 0.44 ng/g tissue) was also not altered by challenge of the tissues with sulfur mustard. In contrast, when the human lung parenchyma was stimulated with anti human IgE (anti-IgE) only the basal release of the metabolite of the 5-lipoxygenase pathway was significantly increased (LTE4: 6.84 +/- 1.57 ng/g tissue). These data suggest that sulfur mustard may produce morphological alterations in epithelial cells and at the time point studied (45 min exposure), this effect is not associated with a release of arachidonic acid metabolites. However, the increased release of LTE4 by anti-IgE suggests that the target cells for sulfur mustard and anti-IgE in the human lung may be different.