Iron-independent phosphorylation of iron regulatory protein 2 regulates ferritin during the cell cycle

Iron regulatory protein 2 (IRP2) is a key iron sensor that post-transcriptionally regulates mammalian iron homeostasis by binding to iron-responsive elements (IREs) in mRNAs that encode proteins involved in iron metabolism (e.g. ferritin and transferrin receptor 1). During iron deficiency, IRP2 binds IREs to regulate mRNA translation or stability, whereas during iron sufficiency IRP2 is degraded by the proteasome. Here, we identify an iron-independent IRP2 phosphorylation site that is regulated by the cell cycle. IRP2 Ser-157 is phosphorylated by Cdk1/cyclin B1 during G(2)/M and is dephosphorylated during mitotic exit by the phosphatase Cdc14A. Ser-157 phosphorylation during G(2)/M reduces IRP2 RNA-binding activity and increases ferritin synthesis, whereas Ser-157 dephosphorylation during mitotic exit restores IRP2 RNA-binding activity and represses ferritin synthesis. These data show that reversible phosphorylation of IRP2 during G(2)/M has a role in modulating the iron-independent expression of ferritin and other IRE-containing mRNAs during the cell cycle.

An iron enhancer element in the FTN-1 gene directs iron-dependent expression in Caenorhabditis elegans intestine

Ferritin is a ubiquitous protein that sequesters iron and protects cells from iron toxicity. Caenorhabditis elegans express two ferritins, FTN-1 and FTN-2, which are transcriptionally regulated by iron. To identify the cis-acting sequences and proteins required for iron-dependent regulation of ftn-1 and ftn-2 expression, we generated transcriptional GFP reporters corresponding to 5 '-upstream sequences of the ftn-1 and ftn-2 genes. We identified a conserved 63-bp sequence, the iron-dependent element (IDE), that is required for iron-dependent regulation of a ftn-1 GFP reporter in intestine. The IDE contains two GATA-binding motifs and three octameric direct repeats. Site-directed mutagenesis of the GATA sequences, singly or in combination, reduces ftn-1 GFP reporter expression in the intestine. In vitro DNA mobility shift assays show that the intestine-specific GATA protein ELT-2 binds to both GATA sequences. Inhibition of ELT-2 function by RNA interference blocks ftn-1 GFP reporter expression in vivo. Insertion of the IDE into the promoter region of a heterologous reporter activates iron-dependent transcription in intestine. These data demonstrate that the activation of ftn-1 and ftn-2 transcription by iron requires ELT-2 and that the IDE functions as an iron-dependent enhancer in intestine.

XMAP215, XKCM1, NuMA, and cytoplasmic dynein are required for the assembly and organization of the transient microtubule array during the maturation of Xenopus oocytes

During the maturation of Xenopus oocytes, a transient microtubule array (TMA) is nucleated from a novel MTOC near the base of the germinal vesicle. The MTOC-TMA transports the meiotic chromosomes to the animal cortex, where it serves as the precursor to the first meiotic spindle. To understand more fully the assembly of the MTOC-TMA, we used confocal immunofluorescence microscopy to examine the localization and function of XMAP215, XKCM1, NuMA, and cytoplasmic dynein during oocyte maturation. XMAP215, XKCM1, and NuMA were all localized to the base of the MTOC-TMA and the meiotic spindle. Microinjection of anti-XMAP215 inhibited microtubule (MT) assembly during oocyte maturation, disrupting assembly of the MTOC-TMA and subsequent assembly of the first meiotic spindle. In contrast, microinjection of anti-XKCM1 promoted MT assembly throughout the cytoplasm, disrupting organization of the MTOC-TMA and meiotic spindle. Finally, microinjection of anti-dynein or anti-NuMA disrupted the organization of the MTOC-TMA and subsequent assembly of the meiotic spindles. These results suggest that XMAP215 and XKCM1 act antagonistically to regulate MT assembly and organization during maturation of Xenopus oocytes, and that dynein and NuMA are required for organization of the MTOC-TMA.