1
|
Migliano SM, Schultz SW, Wenzel EM, Takáts S, Liu D, Mørk S, Tan KW, Rusten TE, Raiborg C, Stenmark H. Removal of hypersignaling endosomes by simaphagy. Autophagy 2024; 20:769-791. [PMID: 37840274 PMCID: PMC11062362 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2023.2267958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/01/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Activated transmembrane receptors continue to signal following endocytosis and are only silenced upon ESCRT-mediated internalization of the receptors into intralumenal vesicles (ILVs) of the endosomes. Accordingly, endosomes with dysfunctional receptor internalization into ILVs can cause sustained receptor signaling which has been implicated in cancer progression. Here, we describe a surveillance mechanism that allows cells to detect and clear physically intact endosomes with aberrant receptor accumulation and elevated signaling. Proximity biotinylation and proteomics analyses of ESCRT-0 defective endosomes revealed a strong enrichment of the ubiquitin-binding macroautophagy/autophagy receptors SQSTM1 and NBR1, a phenotype that was confirmed in cell culture and fly tissue. Live cell microscopy demonstrated that loss of the ESCRT-0 subunit HGS/HRS or the ESCRT-I subunit VPS37 led to high levels of ubiquitinated and phosphorylated receptors on endosomes. This was accompanied by dynamic recruitment of NBR1 and SQSTM1 as well as proteins involved in autophagy initiation and autophagosome biogenesis. Light microscopy and electron tomography revealed that endosomes with intact limiting membrane, but aberrant receptor downregulation were engulfed by phagophores. Inhibition of autophagy caused increased intra- and intercellular signaling and directed cell migration. We conclude that dysfunctional endosomes are surveyed and cleared by an autophagic process, simaphagy, which serves as a failsafe mechanism in signal termination.Abbreviations: AKT: AKT serine/threonine kinase; APEX2: apurinic/apyrimidinic endodoexyribonuclease 2; ctrl: control; EEA1: early endosome antigen 1; EGF: epidermal growth factor; EGFR: epidermal growth factor receptor; ESCRT: endosomal sorting complex required for transport; GFP: green fluorescent protein; HGS/HRS: hepatocyte growth factor-regulated tyrosine kinase substrate; IF: immunofluorescence; ILV: intralumenal vesicle; KO: knockout; LIR: LC3-interacting region; LLOMe: L-leucyl-L-leucine methyl ester (hydrochloride); MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; MAPK1/ERK2: mitogen-activated protein kinase 1; MAPK3/ERK1: mitogen-activated protein kinase 3; NBR1: NBR1 autophagy cargo receptor; PAG10: Protein A-conjugated 10-nm gold; RB1CC1/FIP200: RB1 inducible coiled-coil 1; siRNA: small interfering RNA; SQSTM1: sequestosome 1; TUB: Tubulin; UBA: ubiquitin-associated; ULK1: unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 1; VCL: Vinculin; VPS37: VPS37 subunit of ESCRT-I; WB: western blot; WT: wild-type.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simona M. Migliano
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Sebastian W. Schultz
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Eva M. Wenzel
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Szabolcs Takáts
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Anatomy, Cell and Developmental Biology, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Dan Liu
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Silje Mørk
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Kia Wee Tan
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Medical Cell Biology, University of Uppsala, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Tor Erik Rusten
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Camilla Raiborg
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Harald Stenmark
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Ng MYW, Charsou C, Lapao A, Singh S, Trachsel-Moncho L, Schultz SW, Nakken S, Munson MJ, Simonsen A. The cholesterol transport protein GRAMD1C regulates autophagy initiation and mitochondrial bioenergetics. Nat Commun 2022; 13:6283. [PMID: 36270994 PMCID: PMC9586981 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-33933-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
During autophagy, cytosolic cargo is sequestered into double-membrane vesicles called autophagosomes. The contributions of specific lipids, such as cholesterol, to the membranes that form the autophagosome, remain to be fully characterized. Here, we demonstrate that short term cholesterol depletion leads to a rapid induction of autophagy and a corresponding increase in autophagy initiation events. We further show that the ER-localized cholesterol transport protein GRAMD1C functions as a negative regulator of starvation-induced autophagy and that both its cholesterol transport VASt domain and membrane binding GRAM domain are required for GRAMD1C-mediated suppression of autophagy initiation. Similar to its yeast orthologue, GRAMD1C associates with mitochondria through its GRAM domain. Cells lacking GRAMD1C or its VASt domain show increased mitochondrial cholesterol levels and mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation, suggesting that GRAMD1C may facilitate cholesterol transfer at ER-mitochondria contact sites. Finally, we demonstrate that expression of GRAMD family proteins is linked to clear cell renal carcinoma survival, highlighting the pathophysiological relevance of cholesterol transport proteins.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew Yoke Wui Ng
- grid.5510.10000 0004 1936 8921Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, 0372 Oslo, Norway ,grid.5510.10000 0004 1936 8921Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, 0450 Oslo, Norway
| | - Chara Charsou
- grid.5510.10000 0004 1936 8921Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, 0372 Oslo, Norway ,grid.5510.10000 0004 1936 8921Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, 0450 Oslo, Norway
| | - Ana Lapao
- grid.5510.10000 0004 1936 8921Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, 0372 Oslo, Norway ,grid.5510.10000 0004 1936 8921Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, 0450 Oslo, Norway
| | - Sakshi Singh
- grid.5510.10000 0004 1936 8921Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, 0372 Oslo, Norway ,grid.5510.10000 0004 1936 8921Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, 0450 Oslo, Norway
| | - Laura Trachsel-Moncho
- grid.5510.10000 0004 1936 8921Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, 0372 Oslo, Norway ,grid.5510.10000 0004 1936 8921Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, 0450 Oslo, Norway
| | - Sebastian W. Schultz
- grid.5510.10000 0004 1936 8921Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, 0450 Oslo, Norway ,grid.55325.340000 0004 0389 8485Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital Montebello, 0379 Oslo, Norway
| | - Sigve Nakken
- grid.5510.10000 0004 1936 8921Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, 0450 Oslo, Norway ,grid.55325.340000 0004 0389 8485Department of Tumor Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital Montebello, 0379 Oslo, Norway
| | - Michael J. Munson
- grid.5510.10000 0004 1936 8921Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, 0372 Oslo, Norway ,grid.5510.10000 0004 1936 8921Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, 0450 Oslo, Norway ,grid.418151.80000 0001 1519 6403Present Address: Advanced Drug Delivery, Pharmaceutical Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Anne Simonsen
- grid.5510.10000 0004 1936 8921Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, 0372 Oslo, Norway ,grid.5510.10000 0004 1936 8921Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, 0450 Oslo, Norway ,grid.55325.340000 0004 0389 8485Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital Montebello, 0379 Oslo, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Munson MJ, Mathai BJ, Ng MYW, Trachsel-Moncho L, de la Ballina LR, Schultz SW, Aman Y, Lystad AH, Singh S, Singh S, Wesche J, Fang EF, Simonsen A. GAK and PRKCD are positive regulators of PRKN-independent mitophagy. Nat Commun 2021; 12:6101. [PMID: 34671015 DOI: 10.1101/2020.11.05.369496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms involved in programmed or damage-induced removal of mitochondria by mitophagy remains elusive. Here, we have screened for regulators of PRKN-independent mitophagy using an siRNA library targeting 197 proteins containing lipid interacting domains. We identify Cyclin G-associated kinase (GAK) and Protein Kinase C Delta (PRKCD) as regulators of PRKN-independent mitophagy, with both being dispensable for PRKN-dependent mitophagy and starvation-induced autophagy. We demonstrate that the kinase activity of both GAK and PRKCD are required for efficient mitophagy in vitro, that PRKCD is present on mitochondria, and that PRKCD facilitates recruitment of ULK1/ATG13 to early autophagic structures. Importantly, we demonstrate in vivo relevance for both kinases in the regulation of basal mitophagy. Knockdown of GAK homologue (gakh-1) in C. elegans or knockout of PRKCD homologues in zebrafish led to significant inhibition of basal mitophagy, highlighting the evolutionary relevance of these kinases in mitophagy regulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Munson
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, N-0372, Oslo, Norway.
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway.
- Advanced Drug Delivery, Pharmaceutical Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | - Benan J Mathai
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, N-0372, Oslo, Norway
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Matthew Yoke Wui Ng
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, N-0372, Oslo, Norway
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Laura Trachsel-Moncho
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, N-0372, Oslo, Norway
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Laura R de la Ballina
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, N-0372, Oslo, Norway
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Sebastian W Schultz
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, The Norwegian Radium Hospital Montebello, N-0379, Oslo, Norway
| | - Yahyah Aman
- Department of Clinical Molecular Biology, University of Oslo and Akershus University Hospital, 1478, Lørenskog, Norway
| | - Alf H Lystad
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, N-0372, Oslo, Norway
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Sakshi Singh
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, N-0372, Oslo, Norway
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Sachin Singh
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Tumor Biology, The Norwegian Radium Hospital Montebello, N-0379, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jørgen Wesche
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Tumor Biology, The Norwegian Radium Hospital Montebello, N-0379, Oslo, Norway
| | - Evandro F Fang
- Department of Clinical Molecular Biology, University of Oslo and Akershus University Hospital, 1478, Lørenskog, Norway
| | - Anne Simonsen
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, N-0372, Oslo, Norway.
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway.
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, The Norwegian Radium Hospital Montebello, N-0379, Oslo, Norway.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Munson MJ, Mathai BJ, Ng MYW, Trachsel-Moncho L, de la Ballina LR, Schultz SW, Aman Y, Lystad AH, Singh S, Singh S, Wesche J, Fang EF, Simonsen A. GAK and PRKCD are positive regulators of PRKN-independent mitophagy. Nat Commun 2021; 12:6101. [PMID: 34671015 PMCID: PMC8528926 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-26331-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The mechanisms involved in programmed or damage-induced removal of mitochondria by mitophagy remains elusive. Here, we have screened for regulators of PRKN-independent mitophagy using an siRNA library targeting 197 proteins containing lipid interacting domains. We identify Cyclin G-associated kinase (GAK) and Protein Kinase C Delta (PRKCD) as regulators of PRKN-independent mitophagy, with both being dispensable for PRKN-dependent mitophagy and starvation-induced autophagy. We demonstrate that the kinase activity of both GAK and PRKCD are required for efficient mitophagy in vitro, that PRKCD is present on mitochondria, and that PRKCD facilitates recruitment of ULK1/ATG13 to early autophagic structures. Importantly, we demonstrate in vivo relevance for both kinases in the regulation of basal mitophagy. Knockdown of GAK homologue (gakh-1) in C. elegans or knockout of PRKCD homologues in zebrafish led to significant inhibition of basal mitophagy, highlighting the evolutionary relevance of these kinases in mitophagy regulation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Munson
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, N-0372, Oslo, Norway.
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway.
- Advanced Drug Delivery, Pharmaceutical Sciences, BioPharmaceuticals R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | - Benan J Mathai
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, N-0372, Oslo, Norway
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Matthew Yoke Wui Ng
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, N-0372, Oslo, Norway
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Laura Trachsel-Moncho
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, N-0372, Oslo, Norway
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Laura R de la Ballina
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, N-0372, Oslo, Norway
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Sebastian W Schultz
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, The Norwegian Radium Hospital Montebello, N-0379, Oslo, Norway
| | - Yahyah Aman
- Department of Clinical Molecular Biology, University of Oslo and Akershus University Hospital, 1478, Lørenskog, Norway
| | - Alf H Lystad
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, N-0372, Oslo, Norway
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Sakshi Singh
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, N-0372, Oslo, Norway
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
| | - Sachin Singh
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Tumor Biology, The Norwegian Radium Hospital Montebello, N-0379, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jørgen Wesche
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Tumor Biology, The Norwegian Radium Hospital Montebello, N-0379, Oslo, Norway
| | - Evandro F Fang
- Department of Clinical Molecular Biology, University of Oslo and Akershus University Hospital, 1478, Lørenskog, Norway
| | - Anne Simonsen
- Division of Biochemistry, Department of Molecular Medicine, Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Oslo, N-0372, Oslo, Norway.
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, N-0316, Oslo, Norway.
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, The Norwegian Radium Hospital Montebello, N-0379, Oslo, Norway.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Schultz SW, Agudo-Canalejo J, Chino H, Migliano SM, Saito C, Koyama-Honda I, Stenmark H, Brech A, Mizushima N, Knorr RL, May AI. Should I bend or should I grow: the mechanisms of droplet-mediated autophagosome formation. Autophagy 2021; 17:1046-1048. [PMID: 33629888 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2021.1887548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Phase-separated droplets with liquid-like properties can be degraded by macroautophagy/autophagy, but the mechanism underlying this degradation is poorly understood. We have recently derived a physical model to investigate the interaction between autophagic membranes and such droplets, uncovering that intrinsic wetting interactions underlie droplet-membrane contacts. We found that the competition between droplet surface tension and the increasing tendency of growing membrane sheets to bend determines whether a droplet is completely engulfed or isolated in a piecemeal fashion, a process we term fluidophagy. Intriguingly, we found that another critical parameter of droplet-membrane interactions, the spontaneous curvature of the membrane, determines whether the droplet is degraded by autophagy or - counterintuitively - serves as a platform from which autophagic membranes expand into the cytosol. We also discovered that the interaction of membrane-associated LC3 with the LC3-interacting region (LIR) found in the autophagic cargo receptor protein SQSTM1/p62 and many other autophagy-related proteins influences the preferred bending directionality of forming autophagosomes in living cells. Our study provides a physical account of how droplet-membrane wetting underpins the structure and fate of forming autophagosomes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian W Schultz
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jaime Agudo-Canalejo
- Rudolf Peierls Centre for Theoretical Physics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.,Department of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.,Department of Living Matter Physics, Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Haruka Chino
- Graduate School and Faculty of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Simona M Migliano
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Chieko Saito
- Graduate School and Faculty of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ikuko Koyama-Honda
- Graduate School and Faculty of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Harald Stenmark
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Andreas Brech
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway.,Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Institute of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Noboru Mizushima
- Graduate School and Faculty of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Roland L Knorr
- Graduate School and Faculty of Medicine, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Molecular Physiology, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Alexander I May
- Cell Biology Center, Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan.,Tokyo Tech World Research Hub Initiative (WRHI), Institute of Innovative Research, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Ohnstad AE, Delgado JM, North BJ, Nasa I, Kettenbach AN, Schultz SW, Shoemaker CJ. Receptor-mediated clustering of FIP200 bypasses the role of LC3 lipidation in autophagy. EMBO J 2020; 39:e104948. [PMID: 33226137 PMCID: PMC7737610 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2020104948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Revised: 09/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagosome formation requires multiple autophagy-related (ATG) factors. However, we find that a subset of autophagy substrates remains robustly targeted to the lysosome in the absence of several core ATGs, including the LC3 lipidation machinery. To address this unexpected result, we performed genome-wide CRISPR screens identifying genes required for NBR1 flux in ATG7KO cells. We find that ATG7-independent autophagy still requires canonical ATG factors including FIP200. However, in the absence of LC3 lipidation, additional factors are required including TAX1BP1 and TBK1. TAX1BP1's ability to cluster FIP200 around NBR1 cargo and induce local autophagosome formation enforces cargo specificity and replaces the requirement for lipidated LC3. In support of this model, we define a ubiquitin-independent mode of TAX1BP1 recruitment to NBR1 puncta, highlighting that TAX1BP1 recruitment and clustering, rather than ubiquitin binding per se, is critical for function. Collectively, our data provide a mechanistic basis for reports of selective autophagy in cells lacking the lipidation machinery, wherein receptor-mediated clustering of upstream autophagy factors drives continued autophagosome formation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amelia E Ohnstad
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell BiologyGeisel School of Medicine at DartmouthHanoverNHUSA
| | - Jose M Delgado
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell BiologyGeisel School of Medicine at DartmouthHanoverNHUSA
| | - Brian J North
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell BiologyGeisel School of Medicine at DartmouthHanoverNHUSA
| | - Isha Nasa
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell BiologyGeisel School of Medicine at DartmouthHanoverNHUSA
- Norris Cotton Cancer CenterLebanonNHUSA
| | - Arminja N Kettenbach
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell BiologyGeisel School of Medicine at DartmouthHanoverNHUSA
- Norris Cotton Cancer CenterLebanonNHUSA
| | - Sebastian W Schultz
- Centre for Cancer Cell ReprogrammingFaculty of MedicineUniversity of OsloOsloNorway
- Department of Molecular Cell BiologyInstitute for Cancer ResearchOslo University HospitalOsloNorway
| | - Christopher J Shoemaker
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell BiologyGeisel School of Medicine at DartmouthHanoverNHUSA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Shoemaker CJ, Huang TQ, Weir NR, Polyakov NJ, Schultz SW, Denic V. CRISPR screening using an expanded toolkit of autophagy reporters identifies TMEM41B as a novel autophagy factor. PLoS Biol 2019; 17:e2007044. [PMID: 30933966 PMCID: PMC6459555 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2007044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2018] [Revised: 04/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The power of forward genetics in yeast is the foundation on which the field of autophagy research firmly stands. Complementary work on autophagy in higher eukaryotes has revealed both the deep conservation of this process, as well as novel mechanisms by which autophagy is regulated in the context of development, immunity, and neuronal homeostasis. The recent emergence of new clustered regularly interspaced palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated protein 9 (CRISPR/Cas9)-based technologies has begun facilitating efforts to define novel autophagy factors and pathways by forward genetic screening in mammalian cells. Here, we set out to develop an expanded toolkit of autophagy reporters amenable to CRISPR/Cas9 screening. Genome-wide screening of our reporters in mammalian cells recovered virtually all known autophagy-related (ATG) factors as well as previously uncharacterized factors, including vacuolar protein sorting 37 homolog A (VPS37A), transmembrane protein 251 (TMEM251), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis 2 (ALS2), and TMEM41B. To validate this data set, we used quantitative microscopy and biochemical analyses to show that 1 novel hit, TMEM41B, is required for phagophore maturation. TMEM41B is an integral endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane protein distantly related to the established autophagy factor vacuole membrane protein 1 (VMP1), and our data show that these two factors play related, albeit not fully overlapping, roles in autophagosome biogenesis. In sum, our work uncovers new ATG factors, reveals a malleable network of autophagy receptor genetic interactions, and provides a valuable resource (http://crispr.deniclab.com) for further mining of novel autophagy mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J. Shoemaker
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Northwest Labs, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Tina Q. Huang
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Northwest Labs, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Nicholas R. Weir
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Northwest Labs, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Nicole J. Polyakov
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Northwest Labs, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Sebastian W. Schultz
- Centre for Cancer Cell Reprogramming, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Vladimir Denic
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, Northwest Labs, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Drießen S, Berleth N, Friesen O, Löffler AS, Böhler P, Hieke N, Stuhldreier F, Peter C, Schink KO, Schultz SW, Stenmark H, Holland P, Simonsen A, Wesselborg S, Stork B. Deubiquitinase inhibition by WP1130 leads to ULK1 aggregation and blockade of autophagy. Autophagy 2016. [PMID: 26207339 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2015.1067359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy represents an intracellular degradation process which is involved in both regular cell homeostasis and disease settings. In recent years, the molecular machinery governing this process has been elucidated. The ULK1 kinase complex consisting of the serine/threonine protein kinase ULK1 and the adapter proteins ATG13, RB1CC1, and ATG101, is centrally involved in the regulation of autophagy initiation. This complex is in turn regulated by the activity of different nutrient- or energy-sensing kinases, including MTOR, AMPK, and AKT. However, next to phosphorylation processes it has been suggested that ubiquitination of ULK1 positively influences ULK1 function. Here we report that the inhibition of deubiquitinases by the compound WP1130 leads to increased ULK1 ubiquitination, the transfer of ULK1 to aggresomes, and the inhibition of ULK1 activity. Additionally, WP1130 can block the autophagic flux. Thus, treatment with WP1130 might represent an efficient tool to inhibit the autophagy-initiating ULK1 complex and autophagy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Drießen
- a Institute of Molecular Medicine; Heinrich-Heine-University ; Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Niklas Berleth
- a Institute of Molecular Medicine; Heinrich-Heine-University ; Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Olena Friesen
- a Institute of Molecular Medicine; Heinrich-Heine-University ; Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Antje S Löffler
- a Institute of Molecular Medicine; Heinrich-Heine-University ; Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Philip Böhler
- a Institute of Molecular Medicine; Heinrich-Heine-University ; Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Nora Hieke
- a Institute of Molecular Medicine; Heinrich-Heine-University ; Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Fabian Stuhldreier
- a Institute of Molecular Medicine; Heinrich-Heine-University ; Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Christoph Peter
- a Institute of Molecular Medicine; Heinrich-Heine-University ; Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Kay O Schink
- b Department of Biochemistry ; Institute for Cancer Research; The Norwegian Radium Hospital ; Oslo , Norway
| | - Sebastian W Schultz
- b Department of Biochemistry ; Institute for Cancer Research; The Norwegian Radium Hospital ; Oslo , Norway
| | - Harald Stenmark
- b Department of Biochemistry ; Institute for Cancer Research; The Norwegian Radium Hospital ; Oslo , Norway
| | - Petter Holland
- c Institute of Basic Medical Sciences; Faculty of Medicine; University of Oslo ; Oslo , Norway
| | - Anne Simonsen
- c Institute of Basic Medical Sciences; Faculty of Medicine; University of Oslo ; Oslo , Norway
| | - Sebastian Wesselborg
- a Institute of Molecular Medicine; Heinrich-Heine-University ; Düsseldorf , Germany
| | - Björn Stork
- a Institute of Molecular Medicine; Heinrich-Heine-University ; Düsseldorf , Germany
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Sanchez GM, Alkhori L, Hatano E, Schultz SW, Kuzhandaivel A, Jafari S, Granseth B, Alenius M. Hedgehog Signaling Regulates the Ciliary Transport of Odorant Receptors in Drosophila. Cell Rep 2016; 14:464-470. [PMID: 26774485 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2015.12.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2015] [Revised: 10/26/2015] [Accepted: 12/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Hedgehog (Hh) signaling is a key regulatory pathway during development and also has a functional role in mature neurons. Here, we show that Hh signaling regulates the odor response in adult Drosophila olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs). We demonstrate that this is achieved by regulating odorant receptor (OR) transport to and within the primary cilium in OSN neurons. Regulation relies on ciliary localization of the Hh signal transducer Smoothened (Smo). We further demonstrate that the Hh- and Smo-dependent regulation of the kinesin-like protein Cos2 acts in parallel to the intraflagellar transport system (IFT) to localize ORs within the cilium compartment. These findings expand our knowledge of Hh signaling to encompass chemosensory modulation and receptor trafficking.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gonzalo M Sanchez
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, 58185 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Liza Alkhori
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, 58185 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Eduardo Hatano
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, 58185 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Sebastian W Schultz
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, 58185 Linköping, Sweden
| | | | - Shadi Jafari
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, 58185 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Björn Granseth
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, 58185 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Mattias Alenius
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, 58185 Linköping, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Thorvaldsen TE, Pedersen NM, Wenzel EM, Schultz SW, Brech A, Liestøl K, Waaler J, Krauss S, Stenmark H. Structure, Dynamics, and Functionality of Tankyrase Inhibitor-Induced Degradasomes. Mol Cancer Res 2015; 13:1487-501. [PMID: 26124443 DOI: 10.1158/1541-7786.mcr-15-0125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2015] [Accepted: 06/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Tankyrase (TNKS) enzymes, due to their poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase activity, have emerged as potential targets in experimental cancer therapy. However, the functional consequences of TNKS inhibition remain incompletely resolved because of the binding promiscuity of TNKS. One of the hallmarks of small-molecule TNKS inhibitors (TNKSi) is the stabilization of AXIN, which plays a pivotal role in the WNT/β-catenin signaling pathway. The present study focused on the known ability of TNKSi to induce cytoplasmic puncta (degradasomes) consisting of components of the signal-limiting WNT/β-catenin destruction complex. Using the colorectal cancer cell line SW480 stably transfected with GFP-TNKS1, it was demonstrated that a TNKS-specific inhibitor (G007-LK) induces highly dynamic and mobile degradasomes that contain phosphorylated β-catenin, ubiquitin, and β-TrCP. Likewise, G007-LK was found to induce similar degradasomes in other colorectal cancer cell lines expressing wild-type or truncated versions of the degradasome component APC. Super-resolution and electron microscopy revealed that the induced degradasomes in SW480 cells are membrane-free structures that consist of a filamentous assembly of high electron densities and discrete subdomains of various destruction complex components. Fluorescence recovery after photobleaching experiments further demonstrated that β-catenin-mCherry was rapidly turned over in the G007-LK-induced degradasomes, whereas GFP-TNKS1 remained stable. In conclusion, TNKS inhibition attenuates WNT/β-catenin signaling by promoting dynamic assemblies of functional active destruction complexes into a TNKS-containing scaffold even in the presence of an APC truncation. IMPLICATIONS This study demonstrates that β-catenin is rapidly turned over in highly dynamic assemblies of WNT destruction complexes (degradasomes) upon tankyrase inhibition and provides a direct mechanistic link between degradasome formation and reduced WNT signaling in colorectal cancer cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tor Espen Thorvaldsen
- Centre for Cancer Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Montebello, Oslo, Norway. Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Montebello, Oslo, Norway
| | - Nina Marie Pedersen
- Centre for Cancer Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Montebello, Oslo, Norway. Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Montebello, Oslo, Norway
| | - Eva M Wenzel
- Centre for Cancer Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Montebello, Oslo, Norway. Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Montebello, Oslo, Norway
| | - Sebastian W Schultz
- Centre for Cancer Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Montebello, Oslo, Norway. Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Montebello, Oslo, Norway
| | - Andreas Brech
- Centre for Cancer Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Montebello, Oslo, Norway. Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Montebello, Oslo, Norway
| | - Knut Liestøl
- Centre for Cancer Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Montebello, Oslo, Norway. Department of Informatics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jo Waaler
- Department of Microbiology, Unit for Cell Signaling, Oslo University Hospital, Forskningsparken, Oslo, Norway
| | - Stefan Krauss
- Department of Microbiology, Unit for Cell Signaling, Oslo University Hospital, Forskningsparken, Oslo, Norway
| | - Harald Stenmark
- Centre for Cancer Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, Oslo University Hospital, Montebello, Oslo, Norway. Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Oslo University Hospital, Montebello, Oslo, Norway.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Vietri M, Schink KO, Campsteijn C, Wegner CS, Schultz SW, Christ L, Thoresen SB, Brech A, Raiborg C, Stenmark H. Spastin and ESCRT-III coordinate mitotic spindle disassembly and nuclear envelope sealing. Nature 2015; 522:231-5. [DOI: 10.1038/nature14408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 279] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2014] [Accepted: 03/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
|
12
|
Oskarsson ME, Paulsson JF, Schultz SW, Ingelsson M, Westermark P, Westermark GT. In vivo seeding and cross-seeding of localized amyloidosis: a molecular link between type 2 diabetes and Alzheimer disease. Am J Pathol 2015; 185:834-46. [PMID: 25700985 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2014.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2014] [Revised: 10/31/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Several proteins have been identified as amyloid forming in humans, and independent of protein origin, the fibrils are morphologically similar. Therefore, there is a potential for structures with amyloid seeding ability to induce both homologous and heterologous fibril growth; thus, molecular interaction can constitute a link between different amyloid forms. Intravenous injection with preformed fibrils from islet amyloid polypeptide (IAPP), proIAPP, or amyloid-beta (Aβ) into human IAPP transgenic mice triggered IAPP amyloid formation in pancreas in 5 of 7 mice in each group, demonstrating that IAPP amyloid could be enhanced through homologous and heterologous seeding with higher efficiency for the former mechanism. Proximity ligation assay was used for colocalization studies of IAPP and Aβ in islet amyloid in type 2 diabetic patients and Aβ deposits in brains of patients with Alzheimer disease. Aβ reactivity was not detected in islet amyloid although islet β cells express AβPP and convertases necessary for Aβ production. By contrast, IAPP and proIAPP were detected in cerebral and vascular Aβ deposits, and presence of proximity ligation signal at both locations showed that the peptides were <40 nm apart. It is not clear whether IAPP present in brain originates from pancreas or is locally produced. Heterologous seeding between IAPP and Aβ shown here may represent a molecular link between type 2 diabetes and Alzheimer disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marie E Oskarsson
- Department of Medical Cell Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Johan F Paulsson
- Department of Medical Cell Biology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | - Martin Ingelsson
- Department of Public Health/Geriatrics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Per Westermark
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Kuzhandaivel A, Schultz SW, Alkhori L, Alenius M. Cilia-mediated hedgehog signaling in Drosophila. Cell Rep 2014; 7:672-80. [PMID: 24768000 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2014.03.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2013] [Revised: 12/20/2013] [Accepted: 03/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cilia mediate Hedgehog (Hh) signaling in vertebrates and Hh deregulation results in several clinical manifestations, such as obesity, cognitive disabilities, developmental malformations, and various cancers. Drosophila cells are nonciliated during development, which has led to the assumption that cilia-mediated Hh signaling is restricted to vertebrates. Here, we identify and characterize a cilia-mediated Hh pathway in Drosophila olfactory sensory neurons. We demonstrate that several fundamental key aspects of the vertebrate cilia pathway, such as ciliary localization of Smoothened and the requirement of the intraflagellar transport system, are present in Drosophila. We show that Cos2 and Fused are required for the ciliary transport of Smoothened and that cilia mediate the expression of the Hh pathway target genes. Taken together, our data demonstrate that Hh signaling in Drosophila can be mediated by two pathways and that the ciliary Hh pathway is conserved from Drosophila to vertebrates.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anujaianthi Kuzhandaivel
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linkoping University, SE-581 85 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Sebastian W Schultz
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linkoping University, SE-581 85 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Liza Alkhori
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linkoping University, SE-581 85 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Mattias Alenius
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linkoping University, SE-581 85 Linköping, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|