1
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Klawonn I, Van den Wyngaert S, Iversen MH, Walles TJW, Flintrop CM, Cisternas-Novoa C, Nejstgaard JC, Kagami M, Grossart HP. Fungal parasitism on diatoms alters formation and bio-physical properties of sinking aggregates. Commun Biol 2023; 6:206. [PMID: 36810576 PMCID: PMC9944279 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-04453-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Phytoplankton forms the base of aquatic food webs and element cycling in diverse aquatic systems. The fate of phytoplankton-derived organic matter, however, often remains unresolved as it is controlled by complex, interlinked remineralization and sedimentation processes. We here investigate a rarely considered control mechanism on sinking organic matter fluxes: fungal parasites infecting phytoplankton. We demonstrate that bacterial colonization is promoted 3.5-fold on fungal-infected phytoplankton cells in comparison to non-infected cells in a cultured model pathosystem (diatom Synedra, fungal microparasite Zygophlyctis, and co-growing bacteria), and even ≥17-fold in field-sampled populations (Planktothrix, Synedra, and Fragilaria). Additional data obtained using the Synedra-Zygophlyctis model system reveals that fungal infections reduce the formation of aggregates. Moreover, carbon respiration is 2-fold higher and settling velocities are 11-48% lower for similar-sized fungal-infected vs. non-infected aggregates. Our data imply that parasites can effectively control the fate of phytoplankton-derived organic matter on a single-cell to single-aggregate scale, potentially enhancing remineralization and reducing sedimentation in freshwater and coastal systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabell Klawonn
- Department of Plankton and Microbial Ecology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), 16775, Stechlin, Germany.
- Department of Biological Oceanography, Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research Warnemünde (IOW), 18119, Rostock, Germany.
| | - Silke Van den Wyngaert
- Department of Plankton and Microbial Ecology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), 16775, Stechlin, Germany
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, 20014, Turku, Finland
| | - Morten H Iversen
- Alfred Wegener Institute (AWI), Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
- Centre for Marine Environmental Sciences (MARUM) and University of Bremen, 28359, Bremen, Germany
| | - Tim J W Walles
- Department of Plankton and Microbial Ecology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), 16775, Stechlin, Germany
| | - Clara M Flintrop
- Alfred Wegener Institute (AWI), Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
- Centre for Marine Environmental Sciences (MARUM) and University of Bremen, 28359, Bremen, Germany
- The Inter-University Institute for Marine Sciences in Eilat, Eilat, 8810302, Israel
| | - Carolina Cisternas-Novoa
- Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research (GEOMAR), 24148, Kiel, Germany
- Ocean Sciences Centre, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL, A1C 5S7, Canada
| | - Jens C Nejstgaard
- Department of Plankton and Microbial Ecology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), 16775, Stechlin, Germany
| | - Maiko Kagami
- Faculty of Science, Toho University, Funabashi, Chiba, 274‑8510, Japan
- Faculty of Environment and Information Sciences, Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 240‑8502, Japan
| | - Hans-Peter Grossart
- Department of Plankton and Microbial Ecology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), 16775, Stechlin, Germany
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Potsdam University, 14469, Potsdam, Germany
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2
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Klawonn I, Dunker S, Kagami M, Grossart HP, Van den Wyngaert S. Intercomparison of Two Fluorescent Dyes to Visualize Parasitic Fungi (Chytridiomycota) on Phytoplankton. Microb Ecol 2023; 85:9-23. [PMID: 34854932 PMCID: PMC9849195 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-021-01893-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Fungal microparasites (here chytrids) are widely distributed and yet, they are often overlooked in aquatic environments. To facilitate the detection of microparasites, we revisited the applicability of two fungal cell wall markers, Calcofluor White (CFW) and wheat germ agglutinin (WGA), for the direct visualization of chytrid infections on phytoplankton in laboratory-maintained isolates and field-sampled communities. Using a comprehensive set of chytrid-phytoplankton model pathosystems, we verified the staining pattern on diverse morphological structures of chytrids via fluorescence microscopy. Empty sporangia were stained most effectively, followed by encysted zoospores and im-/mature sporangia, while the staining success was more variable for rhizoids, stalks, and resting spores. In a few instances, the staining was unsuccessful (mostly with WGA), presumably due to insufficient cell fixation, gelatinous cell coatings, and multilayered cell walls. CFW and WGA staining could be done in Utermöhl chambers or on polycarbonate filters, but CFW staining on filters seemed less advisable due to high background fluorescence. To visualize chytrids, 1 µg dye mL-1 was sufficient (but 5 µg mL-1 are recommended). Using a dual CFW-WGA staining protocol, we detected multiple, mostly undescribed chytrids in two natural systems (freshwater and coastal), while falsely positive or negative stained cells were well detectable. As a proof-of-concept, we moreover conducted imaging flow cytometry, as a potential high-throughput technology for quantifying chytrid infections. Our guidelines and recommendations are expected to facilitate the detection of chytrid epidemics and to unveil their ecological and economical imprint in natural and engineered aquatic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabell Klawonn
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), 12587, Berlin, Germany.
- Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research (IOW), Seestrasse 15, 18119, Rostock, Germany.
| | - Susanne Dunker
- Department for Physiological Diversity, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ), 04318, Leipzig, Germany
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv), 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Maiko Kagami
- Faculty of Science, Toho University, Funabashi, Chiba, 274-8510, Japan
- Faculty of Environment and Information Sciences, Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 240-8502, Japan
| | - Hans-Peter Grossart
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), 12587, Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Potsdam University, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Silke Van den Wyngaert
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), 12587, Berlin, Germany.
- WasserCluster Lunz, Biologische Station, Dr. Carl Kupelwieser Promenade 5, 3293, Lunz am See, Austria.
- Department of Biology, University of Turku, Vesilinnantie 5, 20014, Turku, Finland.
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3
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Van den Wyngaert S, Ganzert L, Seto K, Rojas-Jimenez K, Agha R, Berger SA, Woodhouse J, Padisak J, Wurzbacher C, Kagami M, Grossart HP. Seasonality of parasitic and saprotrophic zoosporic fungi: linking sequence data to ecological traits. ISME J 2022; 16:2242-2254. [PMID: 35764676 PMCID: PMC9381765 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-022-01267-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Revised: 05/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Zoosporic fungi of the phylum Chytridiomycota (chytrids) regularly dominate pelagic fungal communities in freshwater and marine environments. Their lifestyles range from obligate parasites to saprophytes. Yet, linking the scarce available sequence data to specific ecological traits or their host ranges constitutes currently a major challenge. We combined 28 S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing with targeted isolation and sequencing approaches, along with cross-infection assays and analysis of chytrid infection prevalence to obtain new insights into chytrid diversity, ecology, and seasonal dynamics in a temperate lake. Parasitic phytoplankton-chytrid and saprotrophic pollen-chytrid interactions made up the majority of zoosporic fungal reads. We explicitly demonstrate the recurrent dominance of parasitic chytrids during frequent diatom blooms and saprotrophic chytrids during pollen rains. Distinct temporal dynamics of diatom-specific parasitic clades suggest mechanisms of coexistence based on niche differentiation and competitive strategies. The molecular and ecological information on chytrids generated in this study will aid further exploration of their spatial and temporal distribution patterns worldwide. To fully exploit the power of environmental sequencing for studies on chytrid ecology and evolution, we emphasize the need to intensify current isolation efforts of chytrids and integrate taxonomic and autecological data into long-term studies and experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silke Van den Wyngaert
- Department of Plankton and Microbial Ecology, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Zur alten Fischerhütte 2, 16775, Stechlin, Germany. .,Department of Biology, University of Turku, Vesilinnantie 5, 20014, Turku, Finland.
| | - Lars Ganzert
- Department of Plankton and Microbial Ecology, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Zur alten Fischerhütte 2, 16775, Stechlin, Germany.,GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Section Geomicrobiology, Telegrafenberg, 14473, Potsdam, Germany.,Marbio, UiT- The Arctic University of Norway, Sykehusveien 23, 9019, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Kensuke Seto
- Faculty of Environment and Information Sciences, Yokohama National University, Tokiwadai 79-7, Hodogayaku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 240-8501, Japan.,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, 48109, MI, USA
| | | | - Ramsy Agha
- Department of Ecosystem Research, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Müggelseedamm 301, 12587, Berlin, Germany
| | - Stella A Berger
- Department of Plankton and Microbial Ecology, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Zur alten Fischerhütte 2, 16775, Stechlin, Germany
| | - Jason Woodhouse
- Department of Plankton and Microbial Ecology, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Zur alten Fischerhütte 2, 16775, Stechlin, Germany
| | - Judit Padisak
- Research Group of Limnology, Centre of Natural Sciences, University of Pannonia, Egyetem u. 10, 8200, Veszprém, Hungary
| | - Christian Wurzbacher
- Chair of Urban Water Systems Engineering, Technical University of Munich, Am Coulombwall 3, 85748, Garching, Germany
| | - Maiko Kagami
- Faculty of Environment and Information Sciences, Yokohama National University, Tokiwadai 79-7, Hodogayaku, Yokohama, Kanagawa, 240-8501, Japan.
| | - Hans-Peter Grossart
- Department of Plankton and Microbial Ecology, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Zur alten Fischerhütte 2, 16775, Stechlin, Germany. .,Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Potsdam University, Maulbeerallee 2, 14469, Potsdam, Germany.
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4
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Ilicic D, Woodhouse J, Karsten U, Zimmermann J, Wichard T, Quartino ML, Campana GL, Livenets A, Van den Wyngaert S, Grossart HP. Antarctic Glacial Meltwater Impacts the Diversity of Fungal Parasites Associated With Benthic Diatoms in Shallow Coastal Zones. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:805694. [PMID: 35308360 PMCID: PMC8931407 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.805694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Aquatic ecosystems are frequently overlooked as fungal habitats, although there is increasing evidence that their diversity and ecological importance are greater than previously considered. Aquatic fungi are critical and abundant components of nutrient cycling and food web dynamics, e.g., exerting top-down control on phytoplankton communities and forming symbioses with many marine microorganisms. However, their relevance for microphytobenthic communities is almost unexplored. In the light of global warming, polar regions face extreme changes in abiotic factors with a severe impact on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Therefore, this study aimed to describe, for the first time, fungal diversity in Antarctic benthic habitats along the salinity gradient and to determine the co-occurrence of fungal parasites with their algal hosts, which were dominated by benthic diatoms. Our results reveal that Ascomycota and Chytridiomycota are the most abundant fungal taxa in these habitats. We show that also in Antarctic waters, salinity has a major impact on shaping not just fungal but rather the whole eukaryotic community composition, with a diversity of aquatic fungi increasing as salinity decreases. Moreover, we determined correlations between putative fungal parasites and potential benthic diatom hosts, highlighting the need for further systematic analysis of fungal diversity along with studies on taxonomy and ecological roles of Chytridiomycota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doris Ilicic
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Neuglobsow, Germany
| | - Jason Woodhouse
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Neuglobsow, Germany
| | - Ulf Karsten
- Institute of Biological Sciences, Applied Ecology and Phycology, University of Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Jonas Zimmermann
- Botanic Garden and Botanical Museum Berlin-Dahlem, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Thomas Wichard
- Institute for Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany
| | | | - Gabriela Laura Campana
- Department of Coastal Biology, Argentinean Antarctic Institute, Buenos Aires, Argentina
- Department of Basic Sciences, National University of Luján, Luján, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Alexandra Livenets
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Neuglobsow, Germany
| | | | - Hans-Peter Grossart
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Neuglobsow, Germany
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
- *Correspondence: Hans-Peter Grossart,
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5
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Sánchez Barranco V, Van der Meer MTJ, Kagami M, Van den Wyngaert S, Van de Waal DB, Van Donk E, Gsell AS. Trophic position, elemental ratios and nitrogen transfer in a planktonic host-parasite-consumer food chain including a fungal parasite. Oecologia 2020; 194:541-554. [PMID: 32803339 PMCID: PMC7683484 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-020-04721-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Parasitism is arguably the most commonly occurring consumer strategy. However, only a few food web studies assess how well stable isotopes reflect the trophic position of parasitic consumers and results are variable. Even fewer studies have measured the nutrient transfer by parasitic consumers, hindering an assessment of their role in nutrient transfer through food webs. Here we used a food chain consisting of a diatom as host, a chytrid as its parasitic consumer and a rotifer as the predatory consumer of the chytrid, to assess the trophic position of all three food-chain components using their natural 13C and 15N isotope signatures, and to measure the nitrogen transfer from the host via the chytrid to the rotifer by tracing 15N of a labelled host up the food chain. Additionally, we measured the carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ratios of all food-chain components. Natural isotope abundance results showed no clear 15N enrichment in the chytrid or rotifer relative to the primary producer. However, estimates of nitrogen transfer indicated that about 14% of host nitrogen was transferred per day from host to chytrid during infection epidemics and that some of this nitrogen was also transferred onward to the rotifer. Moreover, C:N ratios decreased with trophic level, suggesting that the chytrid provided a high-quality food source to the rotifer. In conclusion, our results support the “mycoloop”. The mycooloop proposes that chytrid infections allow the transfer of nutrients bound in large, inedible phytoplankton to zooplankton through the production of edible transmission spores, thereby rerouting nutrients back into the food web.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia Sánchez Barranco
- Copernicus Institute of Sustainable Development, University of Utrecht, Utrecht, The Netherlands. .,Department of Aquatic Ecology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), Wageningen, The Netherlands.
| | - Marcel T J Van der Meer
- Department of Marine Microbiology and Biogeochemistry, Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ) and Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Maiko Kagami
- Graduate Schools of Environment and Information Sciences, Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Silke Van den Wyngaert
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Berlin, Germany
| | - Dedmer B Van de Waal
- Department of Aquatic Ecology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ellen Van Donk
- Department of Aquatic Ecology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Alena S Gsell
- Department of Aquatic Ecology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), Wageningen, The Netherlands
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6
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Taube R, Fabian J, Van den Wyngaert S, Agha R, Baschien C, Gerphagnon M, Kagami M, Krüger A, Premke K. Potentials and limitations of quantification of fungi in freshwater environments based on PLFA profiles. FUNGAL ECOL 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funeco.2019.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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7
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Wurzbacher C, Larsson E, Bengtsson-Palme J, Van den Wyngaert S, Svantesson S, Kristiansson E, Kagami M, Nilsson RH. Introducing ribosomal tandem repeat barcoding for fungi. Mol Ecol Resour 2018; 19:118-127. [PMID: 30240145 DOI: 10.1111/1755-0998.12944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2018] [Revised: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 09/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Sequence comparison and analysis of the various ribosomal genetic markers are the dominant molecular methods for identification and description of fungi. However, new environmental fungal lineages known only from DNA data reveal significant gaps in our sampling of the fungal kingdom in terms of both taxonomy and marker coverage in the reference sequence databases. To facilitate the integration of reference data from all of the ribosomal markers, we present three sets of general primers that allow for amplification of the complete ribosomal operon from the ribosomal tandem repeats. The primers cover all ribosomal markers: ETS, SSU, ITS1, 5.8S, ITS2, LSU and IGS. We coupled these primers successfully with third-generation sequencing (PacBio and Nanopore sequencing) to showcase our approach on authentic fungal herbarium specimens (Basidiomycota), aquatic chytrids (Chytridiomycota) and a poorly understood lineage of early diverging fungi (Nephridiophagidae). In particular, we were able to generate high-quality reference data with Nanopore sequencing in a high-throughput manner, showing that the generation of reference data can be achieved on a regular desktop computer without the involvement of any large-scale sequencing facility. The quality of the Nanopore generated sequences was 99.85%, which is comparable with the 99.78% accuracy described for Sanger sequencing. With this work, we hope to stimulate the generation of a new comprehensive standard of ribosomal reference data with the ultimate aim to close the huge gaps in our reference datasets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Wurzbacher
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden.,Chair of Urban Water Systems Engineering, Technical University of Munich, Garching, Germany.,Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Ellen Larsson
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden.,Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Johan Bengtsson-Palme
- Wisconsin Institute for Discovery, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin.,Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden
| | | | - Sten Svantesson
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden.,Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Erik Kristiansson
- Department of Mathematical Sciences, Chalmers University of Technology and University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Maiko Kagami
- Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries Berlin, Stechlin, Germany.,Department of Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, Toho University, Funabashi, Japan.,Graduate School of Environment and Information Sciences, Yokohama National University, Hodogayaku, Yokohama, Japan
| | - R Henrik Nilsson
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Göteborg, Sweden.,Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, Göteborg, Sweden
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8
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Van den Wyngaert S, Rojas-Jimenez K, Seto K, Kagami M, Grossart HP. Diversity and Hidden Host Specificity of Chytrids Infecting Colonial Volvocacean Algae. J Eukaryot Microbiol 2018; 65:870-881. [PMID: 29752884 DOI: 10.1111/jeu.12632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Revised: 04/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Chytrids are zoosporic fungi that play an important, but yet understudied, ecological role in aquatic ecosystems. Many chytrid species have been morphologically described as parasites on phytoplankton. However, the majority of them have rarely been isolated and lack DNA sequence data. In this study we isolated and cultivated three parasitic chytrids, infecting a common volvocacean host species, Yamagishiella unicocca. To identify the chytrids, we characterized morphology and life cycle, and analyzed phylogenetic relationships based on 18S and 28S rDNA genes. Host range and specificity of the chytrids was determined by cross-infection assays with host strains, characterized by rbcL and ITS markers. We were able to confirm the identity of two chytrid strains as Endocoenobium eudorinae Ingold and Dangeardia mamillata Schröder and described the third chytrid strain as Algomyces stechlinensis gen. et sp. nov. The three chytrids were assigned to novel and phylogenetically distant clades within the phylum Chytridiomycota, each exhibiting different host specificities. By integrating morphological and molecular data of both the parasitic chytrids and their respective host species, we unveiled cryptic host-parasite associations. This study highlights that a high prevalence of (pseudo)cryptic diversity requires molecular characterization of both phytoplankton host and parasitic chytrid to accurately identify and compare host range and specificity, and to study phytoplankton-chytrid interactions in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silke Van den Wyngaert
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Alte Fischerhuette 2, D-16775, Stechlin, Germany
| | - Keilor Rojas-Jimenez
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Alte Fischerhuette 2, D-16775, Stechlin, Germany.,Universidad Latina de Costa Rica, Campus San Pedro, Apdo, 10138-1000, San Jose, Costa Rica
| | - Kensuke Seto
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Toho University, Funabashi, Chiba, Japan
| | - Maiko Kagami
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science, Toho University, Funabashi, Chiba, Japan
| | - Hans-Peter Grossart
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Alte Fischerhuette 2, D-16775, Stechlin, Germany.,Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, Potsdam University, Maulbeerallee 2, 14476, Potsdam, Germany
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9
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Nilsson RH, Taylor AFS, Adams RI, Baschien C, Johan Bengtsson-Palme, Cangren P, Coleine C, Heide-Marie Daniel, Glassman SI, Hirooka Y, Irinyi L, Reda Iršėnaitė, Pedro M. Martin-Sanchez, Meyer W, Seung-Yoon Oh, Jose Paulo Sampaio, Seifert KA, Sklenář F, Dirk Stubbe, Suh SO, Summerbell R, Svantesson S, Martin Unterseher, Cobus M. Visagie, Weiss M, Woudenberg JHC, Christian Wurzbacher, den Wyngaert SV, Yilmaz N, Andrey Yurkov, Kõljalg U, Abarenkov K. Taxonomic annotation of public fungal ITS sequences from the built environment - a report from an April 10-11, 2017 workshop (Aberdeen, UK). MycoKeys 2018; 28:65-82. [PMID: 29559822 PMCID: PMC5804120 DOI: 10.3897/mycokeys.28.20887] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2017] [Accepted: 11/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent DNA-based studies have shown that the built environment is surprisingly rich in fungi. These indoor fungi - whether transient visitors or more persistent residents - may hold clues to the rising levels of human allergies and other medical and building-related health problems observed globally. The taxonomic identity of these fungi is crucial in such pursuits. Molecular identification of the built mycobiome is no trivial undertaking, however, given the large number of unidentified, misidentified, and technically compromised fungal sequences in public sequence databases. In addition, the sequence metadata required to make informed taxonomic decisions - such as country and host/substrate of collection - are often lacking even from reference and ex-type sequences. Here we report on a taxonomic annotation workshop (April 10-11, 2017) organized at the James Hutton Institute/University of Aberdeen (UK) to facilitate reproducible studies of the built mycobiome. The 32 participants went through public fungal ITS barcode sequences related to the built mycobiome for taxonomic and nomenclatural correctness, technical quality, and metadata availability. A total of 19,508 changes - including 4,783 name changes, 14,121 metadata annotations, and the removal of 99 technically compromised sequences - were implemented in the UNITE database for molecular identification of fungi (https://unite.ut.ee/) and shared with a range of other databases and downstream resources. Among the genera that saw the largest number of changes were Penicillium, Talaromyces, Cladosporium, Acremonium, and Alternaria, all of them of significant importance in both culture-based and culture-independent surveys of the built environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Henrik Nilsson
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Box 463, 405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, Box 461, SE-405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Andy F. S. Taylor
- The James Hutton Institute and University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, United Kingdom
| | - Rachel I. Adams
- Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California, 94720 Berkeley, California, USA
| | - Christiane Baschien
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Inhoffenstrasse 7 B, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Johan Bengtsson-Palme
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, The Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Guldhedsgatan 10, SE-413 46, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Patrik Cangren
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Box 463, 405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, Box 461, SE-405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Claudia Coleine
- Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences, University of Tuscia, Viterbo 01100, Italy
- Department of Plant Pathology & Microbiology and Institute of Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, Riverside 92501, CA, USA
| | - Heide-Marie Daniel
- Université catholique de Louvain, Earth and Life Institute, Applied Microbiology, BCCM/MUCL, Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Sydney I. Glassman
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, UC Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Yuuri Hirooka
- Department of Clinical Plant Science, Faculty of Bioscience, Hosei University, 3-7-2 Kajino-cho, Koganei, Tokyo Japan 184-8584
| | - Laszlo Irinyi
- Sydney Medical School-Westmead Hospital, Molecular Mycology Research Laboratory, Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Sydney, Australia
- University of Sydney, Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, Sydney, Australia
- Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Westmead, Australia
| | - Reda Iršėnaitė
- Institute of Botany, Nature Research Centre, Žaliųjų ežerų Str. 49, 08406 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Pedro M. Martin-Sanchez
- Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM), Department 4. Materials & Environment, Unter den Eichen 87, 12205 Berlin, Germany
| | - Wieland Meyer
- Sydney Medical School-Westmead Hospital, Molecular Mycology Research Laboratory, Centre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Sydney, Australia
- University of Sydney, Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, Sydney, Australia
- Westmead Institute for Medical Research, Westmead, Australia
| | - Seung-Yoon Oh
- School of Biological Sciences, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jose Paulo Sampaio
- UCIBIO-REQUIMTE, DCV, Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal
| | - Keith A. Seifert
- Biodiversity (Mycology), Ottawa Research and Development Centre, Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1A 0C6
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie Ottawa, ON, Canada, K1N 6N5
| | - Frantisek Sklenář
- Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
- Institute of Microbiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v.v.i, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Dirk Stubbe
- BCCM/IHEM, Scientific Institute of Public Health WIV-ISP, Juliette Wytsmanstraat 14, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Sung-Oui Suh
- ATCC, 10801 University Blvd., Manassas, Virginia 20110, USA
| | - Richard Summerbell
- Sporometrics, 219 Dufferin Street, Suite 20C, Toronto, Ontario Canada, M6K 1Y9
- Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Health Sciences Building, 155 College Street, 6th floor, Toronto, Ontario Canada, M5T 3M7
| | - Sten Svantesson
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Box 463, 405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, Box 461, SE-405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Martin Unterseher
- Evangelisches Schulzentrum Martinschule, Max-Planck-Str. 7, 17491 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Cobus M. Visagie
- Biodiversity (Mycology), Ottawa Research and Development Centre, Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1A 0C6
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie Ottawa, ON, Canada, K1N 6N5
- Biosystematics Division, ARC-Plant Health and Protection, P/BagX134, Queenswood 0121, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Michael Weiss
- Steinbeis-Innovationszentrum, Organismische Mykologie und Mikrobiologie, Vor dem Kreuzberg 17, 72070 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Joyce HC Woudenberg
- Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute, Uppsalalaan 8, 3584 CT Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Christian Wurzbacher
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Box 463, 405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, Box 461, SE-405 30 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Silke Van den Wyngaert
- Department of Experimental Limnology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, Alte Fischerhuette 2, D-16775 Stechlin, Germany
| | - Neriman Yilmaz
- Biodiversity (Mycology), Ottawa Research and Development Centre, Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, Ottawa, ON, Canada K1A 0C6
- Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie Ottawa, ON, Canada, K1N 6N5
| | - Andrey Yurkov
- Leibniz Institute DSMZ-German Collection of Microorganisms and Cell Cultures, Inhoffenstrasse 7 B, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany
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Van den Wyngaert S, Seto K, Rojas-Jimenez K, Kagami M, Grossart HP. A New Parasitic Chytrid, Staurastromyces oculus (Rhizophydiales, Staurastromycetaceae fam. nov.), Infecting the Freshwater Desmid Staurastrum sp. Protist 2017; 168:392-407. [DOI: 10.1016/j.protis.2017.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2017] [Revised: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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11
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Frenken T, Alacid E, Berger SA, Bourne EC, Gerphagnon M, Grossart HP, Gsell AS, Ibelings BW, Kagami M, Küpper FC, Letcher PM, Loyau A, Miki T, Nejstgaard JC, Rasconi S, Reñé A, Rohrlack T, Rojas-Jimenez K, Schmeller DS, Scholz B, Seto K, Sime-Ngando T, Sukenik A, Van de Waal DB, Van den Wyngaert S, Van Donk E, Wolinska J, Wurzbacher C, Agha R. Integrating chytrid fungal parasites into plankton ecology: research gaps and needs. Environ Microbiol 2017; 19:3802-3822. [DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.13827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2017] [Revised: 06/09/2017] [Accepted: 06/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Thijs Frenken
- Department of Aquatic Ecology; Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), Droevendaalsesteeg 10; Wageningen PB 6708 The Netherlands
| | - Elisabet Alacid
- Departament de Biologia Marina i Oceanografia; Institut de Ciències del Mar (CSIC), Pg. Marítim de la Barceloneta, 37-49; Barcelona 08003 Spain
| | - Stella A. Berger
- Department of Experimental Limnology; Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Alte Fischerhuette 2; Stechlin D-16775 Germany
| | - Elizabeth C. Bourne
- Berlin Center for Genomics in Biodiversity Research, Königin-Luise-Straβe 6-8; Berlin D-14195 Germany
- Department of Ecosystem Research; Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Müggelseedamm 301; Berlin 12587 Germany
| | - Mélanie Gerphagnon
- Department of Ecosystem Research; Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Müggelseedamm 301; Berlin 12587 Germany
| | - Hans-Peter Grossart
- Department of Experimental Limnology; Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Alte Fischerhuette 2; Stechlin D-16775 Germany
- Institute for Biochemistry and Biology, Potsdam University, Maulbeerallee 2; Potsdam D-14476 Germany
| | - Alena S. Gsell
- Department of Aquatic Ecology; Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), Droevendaalsesteeg 10; Wageningen PB 6708 The Netherlands
| | - Bas W. Ibelings
- Department F.-A. Forel for Environmental and Aquatic Sciences & Institute for Environmental Sciences; University of Geneva, 66 Boulevard Carl Vogt; Geneva 4 CH 1211 Switzerland
| | - Maiko Kagami
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science; Toho University, 2-2-1, Miyama; Funabashi Chiba 274-8510 Japan
| | - Frithjof C. Küpper
- Oceanlab, University of Aberdeen, Main Street; Newburgh Scotland AB41 6AA UK
| | - Peter M. Letcher
- Department of Biological Sciences; The University of Alabama, 300 Hackberry Lane; Tuscaloosa AL 35487 USA
| | - Adeline Loyau
- Department of System Ecotoxicology; Helmholtz Center for Environmental Research - UFZ, Permoserstrasse 15; 04318 Leipzig Germany
- Department of Conservation Biology; Helmholtz Center for Environmental Research - UFZ, Permoserstrasse 15; Leipzig 04318 Germany
- ECOLAB, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS; Toulouse France
| | - Takeshi Miki
- Institute of Oceanography; National Taiwan University, No.1 Section 4, Roosevelt Road; Taipei 10617 Taiwan
- Research Center for Environmental Changes; Academia Sinica, No.128 Section 2, Academia Road, Nankang; Taipei 11529 Taiwan
| | - Jens C. Nejstgaard
- Department of Experimental Limnology; Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Alte Fischerhuette 2; Stechlin D-16775 Germany
| | - Serena Rasconi
- WasserCluster Lunz - Biological Station; Inter-University Centre for Aquatic Ecosystem Research, A-3293 Lunz am See; Austria
| | - Albert Reñé
- Departament de Biologia Marina i Oceanografia; Institut de Ciències del Mar (CSIC), Pg. Marítim de la Barceloneta, 37-49; Barcelona 08003 Spain
| | - Thomas Rohrlack
- Faculty of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management; Norwegian University of Life Sciences, P.O. Box 5003, NO-1432, Ås; Norway
| | - Keilor Rojas-Jimenez
- Department of Experimental Limnology; Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Alte Fischerhuette 2; Stechlin D-16775 Germany
- Universidad Latina de Costa Rica, Campus San Pedro, Apdo; San Jose 10138-1000 Costa Rica
| | - Dirk S. Schmeller
- Department of Conservation Biology; Helmholtz Center for Environmental Research - UFZ, Permoserstrasse 15; Leipzig 04318 Germany
- ECOLAB, Université de Toulouse, CNRS, INPT, UPS; Toulouse France
| | - Bettina Scholz
- BioPol ehf, Einbúastig 2, Skagaströnd 545; Iceland
- Faculty of Natural Resource Sciences; University of Akureyri, Borgir v. Nordurslod; Akureyri IS 600 Iceland
| | - Kensuke Seto
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Science; Toho University, 2-2-1, Miyama; Funabashi Chiba 274-8510 Japan
- Sugadaira Montane Research Center; University of Tsukuba, 1278-294, Sugadaira-Kogen; Ueda, Nagano, 386-2204 Japan
| | - Télesphore Sime-Ngando
- Université Clermont Auvergne, UMR CNRS 6023 LMGE, Laboratoire Microorganismes: Génome et Environnement (LMGE); Campus Universitaire des Cézeaux, Impasse Amélie Murat 1, CS 60026, Aubière, 63178 France
| | - Assaf Sukenik
- Kinneret Limnological Laboratory; Israel Oceanographic & Limnological Research, P.O.Box 447; Migdal, 14950 Israel
| | - Dedmer B. Van de Waal
- Department of Aquatic Ecology; Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), Droevendaalsesteeg 10; Wageningen PB 6708 The Netherlands
| | - Silke Van den Wyngaert
- Department of Experimental Limnology; Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Alte Fischerhuette 2; Stechlin D-16775 Germany
| | - Ellen Van Donk
- Department of Aquatic Ecology; Netherlands Institute of Ecology (NIOO-KNAW), Droevendaalsesteeg 10; Wageningen PB 6708 The Netherlands
- Department of Biology; University of Utrecht, Padualaan 8; Utrecht TB 3508 The Netherlands
| | - Justyna Wolinska
- Department of Ecosystem Research; Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Müggelseedamm 301; Berlin 12587 Germany
- Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Königin-Luise-Straβe 1-3; Berlin, 14195 Germany
| | - Christian Wurzbacher
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences; University of Gothenburg, Box 461; Göteborg, 405 30 Sweden
- Gothenburg Global Biodiversity Centre, Box 461; Göteborg, SE-405 30 Sweden
| | - Ramsy Agha
- Department of Ecosystem Research; Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), Müggelseedamm 301; Berlin 12587 Germany
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Van den Wyngaert S, Vanholsbeeck O, Spaak P, Ibelings BW. Parasite fitness traits under environmental variation: disentangling the roles of a chytrid's immediate host and external environment. Microb Ecol 2014; 68:645-656. [PMID: 24863129 DOI: 10.1007/s00248-014-0434-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2013] [Accepted: 05/09/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Parasite environments are heterogeneous at different levels. The first level of variability is the host itself. The second level represents the external environment for the hosts, to which parasites may be exposed during part of their life cycle. Both levels are expected to affect parasite fitness traits. We disentangle the main and interaction effects of variation in the immediate host environment, here the diatom Asterionella formosa (variables host cell volume and host condition through herbicide pre-exposure) and variation in the external environment (variables host density and acute herbicide exposure) on three fitness traits (infection success, development time and reproductive output) of a chytrid parasite. Herbicide exposure only decreased infection success in a low host density environment. This result reinforces the hypothesis that chytrid zoospores use photosynthesis-dependent chemical cues to locate its host. At high host densities, chemotaxis becomes less relevant due to increasing chance contact rates between host and parasite, thereby following the mass-action principle in epidemiology. Theoretical support for this finding is provided by an agent-based simulation model. The immediate host environment (cell volume) substantially affected parasite reproductive output and also interacted with the external herbicide exposed environment. On the contrary, changes in the immediate host environment through herbicide pre-exposure did not increase infection success, though it had subtle effects on zoospore development time and reproductive output. This study shows that both immediate host and external environment as well as their interaction have significant effects on parasite fitness. Disentangling these effects improves our understanding of the processes underlying parasite spread and disease dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silke Van den Wyngaert
- Aquatic Ecology, Eawag, Ueberlandstrasse 133, P.O. Box 611, 8600, Duebendorf, Switzerland,
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13
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Van den Wyngaert S, Gsell AS, Spaak P, Ibelings BW. Herbicides in the environment alter infection dynamics in a microbial host-parasite system. Environ Microbiol 2012; 15:837-47. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2012.02874.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2012] [Revised: 07/08/2012] [Accepted: 08/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Alena S. Gsell
- Department of Aquatic Ecology; Netherlands Institute of Ecology; Droevendaalsesteeg 10; 6708 PB; Wageningen; The Netherlands
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14
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Zeder M, Van den Wyngaert S, Köster O, Felder KM, Pernthaler J. Automated quantification and sizing of unbranched filamentous cyanobacteria by model-based object-oriented image analysis. Appl Environ Microbiol 2010; 76:1615-22. [PMID: 20048059 PMCID: PMC2832370 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02232-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2009] [Accepted: 12/23/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Quantification and sizing of filamentous cyanobacteria in environmental samples or cultures are time-consuming and are often performed by using manual or semiautomated microscopic analysis. Automation of conventional image analysis is difficult because filaments may exhibit great variations in length and patchy autofluorescence. Moreover, individual filaments frequently cross each other in microscopic preparations, as deduced by modeling. This paper describes a novel approach based on object-oriented image analysis to simultaneously determine (i) filament number, (ii) individual filament lengths, and (iii) the cumulative filament length of unbranched cyanobacterial morphotypes in fluorescent microscope images in a fully automated high-throughput manner. Special emphasis was placed on correct detection of overlapping objects by image analysis and on appropriate coverage of filament length distribution by using large composite images. The method was validated with a data set for Planktothrix rubescens from field samples and was compared with manual filament tracing, the line intercept method, and the Utermöhl counting approach. The computer program described allows batch processing of large images from any appropriate source and annotation of detected filaments. It requires no user interaction, is available free, and thus might be a useful tool for basic research and drinking water quality control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Zeder
- Department of Limnology, Institute of Plant Biology, University of Zürich, Seestrasse 187, CH-8802 Kilchberg, Switzerland, Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland, Zürich Water Supply (WVZ), Hardhof 9, P.O. Box 1179, 8021 Zürich, Switzerland, Institute of Veterinary Bacteriology, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 270, CH-8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Silke Van den Wyngaert
- Department of Limnology, Institute of Plant Biology, University of Zürich, Seestrasse 187, CH-8802 Kilchberg, Switzerland, Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland, Zürich Water Supply (WVZ), Hardhof 9, P.O. Box 1179, 8021 Zürich, Switzerland, Institute of Veterinary Bacteriology, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 270, CH-8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Oliver Köster
- Department of Limnology, Institute of Plant Biology, University of Zürich, Seestrasse 187, CH-8802 Kilchberg, Switzerland, Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland, Zürich Water Supply (WVZ), Hardhof 9, P.O. Box 1179, 8021 Zürich, Switzerland, Institute of Veterinary Bacteriology, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 270, CH-8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Kathrin M. Felder
- Department of Limnology, Institute of Plant Biology, University of Zürich, Seestrasse 187, CH-8802 Kilchberg, Switzerland, Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland, Zürich Water Supply (WVZ), Hardhof 9, P.O. Box 1179, 8021 Zürich, Switzerland, Institute of Veterinary Bacteriology, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 270, CH-8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Jakob Pernthaler
- Department of Limnology, Institute of Plant Biology, University of Zürich, Seestrasse 187, CH-8802 Kilchberg, Switzerland, Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland, Zürich Water Supply (WVZ), Hardhof 9, P.O. Box 1179, 8021 Zürich, Switzerland, Institute of Veterinary Bacteriology, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 270, CH-8057 Zürich, Switzerland
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