The spare-parts technique: A safe and efficient single-stage nipple and areola reconstruction

BACKGROUND

The authors hypothesized that optimization of nipple-areolar reconstruction using full-thickness skin graft and cartilage graft can be completed safely in a single-stage procedure.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis of abdominal-based flap breast reconstruction patients who underwent nipple-areolar reconstruction (NAR) using the modified double-opposing tab (mDOT)¹ flap technique was conducted. Complication rates were compared between patients who underwent NAR in a traditional staged procedure versus a single stage. The single-stage group of patients had NAR performed at the time of revision surgery. Reconstruction was performed with full-thickness skin graft from the abdominal standing-cone deformity and costal cartilage that was removed at the time of breast reconstruction and banked subcutaneously until the revision surgery.

RESULTS

In this study, 1,233 nipple reconstructions were reviewed, of which 113 procedures using themDOT technique were analyzed. No significant differences in complication rates were found between the single-stage and the traditional staged NAR, including the risk of total loss of reconstruction or delayed skin graft take. However, the risk of delayed wound healing of the nipple reconstruction was higher in the single-stage group.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study shows that optimizing NAR results by adding cartilage to the nipple construct and enhancing the areolar component by full-thickness skin grafting can be achieved safely in a single stage at the time of flap revision. This represents potential for better long-term nipple projection and better areolar texture mimicry of NAR for breast reconstruction patients.

Outcomes of Acellular Dermal Matrix for Immediate Tissue Expander Reconstruction with Radiotherapy: A Retrospective Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Despite increasing literature support for the use of acellular dermal matrix (ADM) in expander-based breast reconstruction, the effect of ADM on clinical outcomes in the presence of post-mastectomy radiation therapy (PMRT) has not been well described.

OBJECTIVES

To analyze the impact ADM plays on clinical outcomes on immediate tissue expander (ITE) reconstruction undergoing PMRT.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed patients who underwent ITE breast reconstruction from 2004 to 2014 at MD Anderson Cancer Center. Patients were categorized into four cohorts: ADM, ADM with PMRT, non-ADM, and non-ADM with PMRT. Outcomes and complications were compared among cohorts.

RESULTS

Over 10 years, 957 patients underwent ITE reconstruction (683 non-ADM, 113 non-ADM with PMRT, 486 ADM, and 88 ADM with PMRT) with 1370 reconstructions. Overall complication rates for the ADM and non-ADM cohorts were 39.0% and 16.7%, respectively (P < 0.001). Within both cohorts, mastectomy skin flap necrosis (MSFN) was the most common complication, followed by infection. ADM use was associated with a significantly higher rate of infections and seromas in both radiated and non-radiated groups; however, when comparing radiated cohorts, the incidence of explantation was significantly lower with the use of ADM.

CONCLUSIONS

The decision to use ADM for expander-based breast reconstruction should be performed with caution, given higher overall rates of complications, including infections and seromas. There may, however, be a role for ADM in cases requiring PMRT, as the overall incidence of implant failure is lower than non-ADM cases.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 3

Molecular Profiling Using Breast Cancer Subtype to Plan for Breast Reconstruction

BACKGROUND

Molecular profiling using breast cancer subtype has an increasing role in the multidisciplinary care of the breast cancer patient. The authors sought to determine the role of breast cancer subtyping in breast reconstruction and specifically whether breast cancer subtyping can determine the need for postmastectomy radiation therapy and predict recurrence-free survival to plan for the timing and technique of breast reconstruction.

METHODS

The authors reviewed prospectively collected data from 1931 reconstructed breasts in breast cancer patients who underwent mastectomy between November of 1999 and December of 2012. Reconstructed breasts were grouped by breast cancer subtype and examined for covariates predictive of recurrence-free survival and need for postmastectomy radiation therapy.

RESULTS

Of the reconstructed breasts, 753 (39 percent) were luminal A, 538 (27.9 percent) were luminal B, 224 (11.6 percent) were luminal HER2, 143 (7.4 percent) were HER2-enriched, and 267 (13.8 percent) were triple-negative breast cancer. Postmastectomy radiation therapy was delivered in 69 HER2-enriched patients (48.3 percent), 94 luminal HER2 patients (42 percent), 200 luminal B patients (37.2 percent), 99 triple-negative breast cancer patients (37.1 percent), and 222 luminal A patients (29.5 percent) (p < 0.0001). Luminal A cases had better recurrence-free survival than HER2-enriched cases, and triple-negative breast cancer cases had worse recurrence-free survival than HER2-enriched cases. Luminal B and luminal HER2 cases had recurrence-free survival similar to that for HER2-enriched cases. Luminal A subtype was associated with the best recurrence-free survival. Subtyping may have improved the breast surgery planning for 33.1 percent of delayed reconstructions that did not require postmastectomy radiation therapy and 37 percent of immediate reconstructions that did require postmastectomy radiation therapy.

CONCLUSION

This study is the first publication in the literature to evaluate breast cancer subtype to stratify risk for decision making in breast reconstruction.

CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Risk, III.

Current perspectives on radiation therapy in autologous and prosthetic breast reconstruction

BACKGROUND

Postmastectomy radiation therapy (PMRT) has a well-established deleterious effect on both prosthetic and autologous breast reconstruction. The purpose of this study was to perform a literature review of the effects of PMRT on breast reconstruction and to determine predictive or protective factors for complications.

METHODS

The MEDLINE and EMBASE databases were reviewed for articles published between January 2008 and January 2015 including the keywords "breast reconstruction" and "radiation therapy" to identify manuscripts focused on the effects of radiation on both prosthetic and autologous breast reconstruction. This subgroup of articles was reviewed in detail.

RESULTS

Three hundred and twenty articles were identified and 43 papers underwent full text review. The 16 papers provided level III evidence; 10 manuscripts provided level I or II evidence. Seventeen case series provided level IV evidence and were included because they presented novel perspectives. The majority of studies focused on the injurious effects of radiation therapy and increased complications and concomitant lower patient satisfaction.

CONCLUSIONS

Prosthetic based breast reconstruction and immediate autologous reconstruction are associated with lower patient satisfaction in the setting of radiation therapy. Autologous reconstructions can improve patient satisfaction as well as lower revision surgery and long term complications when performed in a delayed fashion after PMRT.

Muscle-sparing TRAM flap does not protect breast reconstruction from postmastectomy radiation damage compared with the DIEP flap

BACKGROUND

Irradiation to free flaps following immediate breast reconstruction has been shown to compromise outcomes. The authors hypothesized that irradiated muscle-sparing free transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous (TRAM) flaps experience less fat necrosis than irradiated deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flaps.

METHODS

The authors performed a retrospective study of all consecutive patients undergoing immediate, autologous, abdomen-based free flap breast reconstruction with muscle-sparing free TRAM or DIEP flaps over a 10-year period at their institution. Irradiated flaps (external-beam radiation therapy) after immediate breast reconstruction were compared with nonirradiated flaps. Logistic regression analysis identified potential associations between patient, tumor, and reconstructive characteristics and surgical outcomes.

RESULTS

The analysis included 625 flaps: 40 (6.4 percent) irradiated versus 585 (93.6 percent) nonirradiated. Mean follow-up for the irradiated and nonirradiated flaps was 60.0 and 48.5 months, respectively (p = 0.02). Overall complication rates were similar for both the irradiated and nonirradiated flaps. Irradiated flaps (i.e., both DIEP and muscle-sparing free TRAM flaps) developed fat necrosis at a significantly higher rate (22.5 percent) than the nonirradiated flaps (9.2 percent; p = 0.009). There were no differences in fat necrosis rates between the DIEP and muscle-sparing free TRAM flaps in both the irradiated and nonirradiated groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Both DIEP and muscle-sparing free TRAM flap reconstructions had much higher rates of fat necrosis when irradiated. Contrary to our hypothesis, the authors found that immediate breast reconstruction with a muscle-sparing free TRAM flap does not result in a lower rate of fat necrosis than reconstruction with a DIEP flap.

CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic, III.

Trends and variation in use of breast reconstruction in patients with breast cancer undergoing mastectomy in the United States

PURPOSE

Concerns exist regarding breast cancer patients' access to breast reconstruction, which provides important psychosocial benefits.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Using the MarketScan database, a claims-based data set of US patients with employment-based insurance, we identified 20,560 women undergoing mastectomy for breast cancer from 1998 to 2007. We evaluated time trends using the Cochran-Armitage test and correlated reconstruction use with plastic-surgery workforce density and other treatments using multivariable regression.

RESULTS

Median age of our sample was 51 years. Reconstruction use increased from 46% in 1998 to 63% in 2007 (P < .001), with increased use of implants and decreased use of autologous techniques over time (P < .001). Receipt of bilateral mastectomy also increased: from 3% in 1998 to 18% in 2007 (P < .001). Patients receiving bilateral mastectomy were more likely to receive reconstruction (odds ratio [OR], 2.3; P < .001) and patients receiving radiation were less likely to receive reconstruction (OR, 0.44; P < .001). Rates of reconstruction receipt varied dramatically by geographic region, with associations with plastic surgeon density in each state and county-level income. Autologous techniques were more often used in patients who received both reconstruction and radiation (OR, 1.8; P < .001) and less frequently used in patients with capitated insurance (OR, 0.7; P < .001), patients undergoing bilateral mastectomy (OR, 0.5; P < .001), or patients in the highest income quartile (OR, 0.7; P = .006). Delayed reconstruction was performed in 21% of patients who underwent reconstruction.

CONCLUSION

Breast reconstruction has increased over time, but it has wide geographic variability. Receipt of other treatments correlates with the use of and approaches toward reconstruction. Further research and interventions are needed to ensure equitable access to this important component of multidisciplinary treatment of breast cancer.

Surgical techniques, biomaterials, and patient variables that impact peri-operative nipple necrosis in nipple-sparing mastectomy

152

Background: Nipple sparing mastectomy is for treatment of early stage breast cancer and risk reduction in patients at high risk for breast cancer. A high rate of nipple loss after NSM (10% to 30%) has slowed incorporation of NSM into clinical practice. No study has evaluated whether clinical and technical factors contribute to nipple loss by decreasing blood supply to the nipple areola complex (NAC). The objective here was to determine the impact of patient variables and surgical factors on survival of the nipple following NSM and to compare rates of complications of NSM to those of SSM. Methods: We evaluated 233 cases of immediate breast reconstruction following mastectomy at MD Anderson Cancer Center between September 2003 and May 2011. 113 NSM procedures were randomly matched to 120 SSMs based on stage, comorbidities, and age. The NSM group was analyzed for variables that correlated with partial or total nipple loss. Results: In the NSM group, the complication rate was 28%, compared to 27% in SSM (p > 0.99). The nipple loss rate in NSM was 20%. In SSM, axillary node dissection increased complications compared to sentinel lymph node biopsy (p = 0.01). Body mass index, breast ptosis, breast cancer pathology, distance of the lesion to the NAC and use of neoadjuvant chemo or radiation therapy had no effect on nipple loss. Vascular comorbidities and smoking lead to increased nipple loss, with borderline p values (p = 0.09 and p = 0.08, respectively). When compared to A- and B-cup breasts, larger breasts had higher nipple loss (6% and 34%, respectively; p=0.003). Surgical incision location did not affect nipple loss, neither did number of prior NSM procedures performed by the breast surgeon (p = 0.86). Axillary lymphadenectomy (p = 0.13), separate axillary incision (p = 0.25), type of breast reconstruction (p = 0.23), and application of bioprosthetic sling (p = 0.27) may have impacted nipple loss if a larger sample size was studied. Conclusions: Patient variables and surgical technique can alter the rate of nipple loss with NSM. This study helps to define patient populations that may be at risk for necrosis and informs surgeon’s as to the best techniques for reconstruction to decrease the occurrence of nipple loss.

Breast reconstruction and adjuvant therapies

Recent developments in the management of breast cancer have increased the complexity of planning for immediate breast reconstruction. Two recent trials have demonstrated superior locoregional control, disease-free survival, and overall survival in node-positive breast cancer patients with the addition of postmastectomy radiation therapy (XRT) to mastectomy and chemotherapy. On the basis of these results, the use of postmastectomy XRT in patients with early-stage breast cancer is increasing. Unfortunately, it is difficult to predict the presence or extent of axillary lymph node involvement-a major determinant of the need for postmastectomy XRT-before mastectomy. There are two potential problems with performing an immediate breast reconstruction in a patient who will require postmastectomy XRT. First, postmastectomy XRT can adversely affect the aesthetic outcome of an immediate breast reconstruction. Second, an immediate breast reconstruction can interfere with the delivery of postmastectomy XRT. Chemotherapy before or after reconstruction does not significantly increase the occurrence of wound-healing problems and breast reconstruction does not appear to delay the initiation or resumption of chemotherapy. The increasing use of postmastectomy XRT and chemotherapy in patients with early-stage breast cancer necessitates increased communication between the medical oncologist, radiation oncologist, breast surgeon, and plastic surgeon during treatment planning for these patients.

Local, regional, and systemic recurrence rates in patients undergoing skin-sparing mastectomy compared with conventional mastectomy

BACKGROUND

Although the use of SSM is becoming more common, there are few data on long-term, local-regional, and distant recurrence rates after treatment. The purpose of this study was to examine the rates of local, regional, and systemic recurrence, and survival in breast cancer patients who underwent skin-sparing mastectomy (SSM) or conventional mastectomy (CM) at our institution.

METHODS

Patients with stage 0 to III unilateral breast cancer who underwent total mastectomy at our center from 2000 to 2005 were included in this study. Kaplan-Meier curves were calculated, and the log-rank test was used to evaluate the differences between overall and disease-free survival rates in the 2 groups.

RESULTS

Of 1810 patients, 799 (44.1%) underwent SSM and 1011 (55.9%) underwent CM. Patients who underwent CM were older (58.3 vs 49.3 years, P<.0001) and were more likely to have stage IIB or III disease (53.0% vs 31.8%, P<.0001). Significantly more patients in the CM group received neoadjuvant chemotherapy and adjuvant radiation therapy (P<.0001). At a median follow-up of 53 months, 119 patients (6.6%) had local, regional, or systemic recurrences. The local, regional, and systemic recurrence rates did not differ significantly between the SSM and CM groups. After adjusting for clinical TNM stage and age, disease-free survival rates between the SSM and CM groups did not differ significantly.

CONCLUSIONS

SSM is an acceptable treatment option for patients who are candidates for immediate breast reconstruction. Local-regional recurrence rates are similar to those of patients undergoing CM. Cancer 2011. © 2010 American Cancer Society.

Present-day locoregional control in patients with t1 or t2 breast cancer with 0 and 1 to 3 positive lymph nodes after mastectomy without radiotherapy

BACKGROUND

We sought to determine present-day locoregional recurrence (LRR) rates to better understand the role of postmastectomy radiotherapy (PMRT) in women with 0 to 3 positive lymph nodes.

METHODS

Clinical and pathologic factors were identified for 1019 patients with pT1 or pT2 tumors and 0 (n = 753), 1 (n = 176), 2 (n = 69), or 3 (n = 21) positive lymph nodes treated with mastectomy without PMRT during 1997 to 2002. Total LRR rates were calculated by Kaplan-Meier analysis and compared between subgroups by the log rank test.

RESULTS

After a median follow-up of 7.47 years, the overall 10-year LRR rate was 2.7%. The only independent predictor of LRR was younger age (P = 0.004). Patients ≤40 years old had a 10-year LRR rate of 11.3 vs. 1.5% for older patients (P < 0.0001). The 10-year rate of LRR in patients with 1 to 3 positive nodes was 4.3% (94.4% had systemic therapy), which was not significantly different from the 10-year risk of contralateral breast cancer development (6.5%; P > 0.5). Compared with the 10-year LRR rate among patients with node-negative disease (2.1%), patients with 1 positive node had a similar 10-year LRR risk (3.3%; P > 0.5), and patients with 2 positive nodes had a 10-year LRR risk of 7.9% (P = 0.0003). Patients with T2 tumors with 1 to 3 positive nodes had a 10-year LRR rate of 9.7%.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with T1 and T2 breast cancer with 0 to 3 positive nodes, LRR rates after mastectomy are low, with the exception of patients ≤40 years old. The indications for PMRT in patients treated in the current era should be reexamined.

Immediate versus delayed reconstruction

Recent developments in the management of breast cancer, including axillary sentinel lymph-node biopsy, as well as the inability to reliably detect micrometastatic disease in the axillary lymph nodes either preoperatively or intraoperatively, and the increasing use of both postmastectomy radiation therapy and neoadjuvant chemotherapy, have had a significant impact on the timing of breast reconstruction. The interplay and sequencing of these diagnostic and treatment modalities in patients with breast cancer have become important issues. This article addresses the clinical dilemma of determining the appropriate timing of breast reconstruction based on various patient-related clinical and pathological factors.

Lower extremity reconstruction

The current recommendation for surgical treatment of tumors of the lower extremity is a limb-sparing resection. Limb-sparing resection coupled with complex reconstructive techniques and complemented by new chemotherapeutic agents and adjuvant radiation therapy has allowed us to achieve survival rates that are comparable to those of amputation with a better functional outcome. Recent advances in microsurgical techniques and the associated technologies and a better understanding of microvascular anatomy has allowed us to customize flaps to the specific needs of the patients and to achieve a lower donor site morbidity. Increased communication between the specialties of the multidisciplinary treatment team has also improved outcomes. The reconstructive component has become an integral part of the multidisciplinary care for patients with lower extremity tumors. It not only allows them to rapidly resume adjuvant therapies but also enables them to more easily resume their activities of daily living.

Impact of sentinel lymph node biopsy on the evolution of breast reconstruction

BACKGROUND

Although sentinel lymph node biopsy is rapidly replacing complete axillary lymph node dissection for lymph node staging in women with clinically node-negative breast cancer, it is unclear what impact the transition to sentinel lymph node biopsy will have on the practice of breast reconstruction.

METHODS

To determine the effect of the transition from complete axillary lymph node dissection to sentinel lymph node biopsy on their practice of breast reconstruction, the authors reviewed the records of 717 patients with breast cancer who underwent sentinel lymph node biopsy and 1887 breast reconstructions-487 were performed in patients who also underwent sentinel lymph node biopsy at The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center between 1998 and 2003.

RESULTS

Before 1999, sentinel lymph node biopsy was performed infrequently. Between 1999 and 2003, the number of sentinel lymph node biopsy procedures performed per year increased almost 50-fold. Concurrent with this increase in the use of sentinel lymph node biopsy, there was a corresponding increase in the proportion of breast reconstruction procedures performed in patients who had also undergone sentinel lymph node biopsy (13 percent per year, p = 0.0001). In 2003, 54 percent of all breast reconstructions were performed in patients who had sentinel lymph node biopsy. In 2000, 1 year after the use of sentinel lymph node biopsy began to increase, the choice of recipient vessels for free transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous (TRAM) flap breast reconstruction began to change. Between 2001 and 2002, the internal mammary vessels replaced the thoracodorsal vessels as the preferred recipient vessels for TRAM flap reconstruction (p < 0.0001). Over the study period, the authors noted a decrease in the percentage of free TRAM flap procedures requiring revision, more frequent use of contralateral implant-based augmentation to achieve symmetry, an increase in the percentage of patients desiring a second attempt at reconstruction after loss of a TRAM flap, and a decrease in the percentage of patients being referred for physical therapy or treatment of lymphedema after free TRAM flap reconstruction.

CONCLUSIONS

The transition from axillary lymph node dissection to sentinel lymph node biopsy has resulted in a change in breast reconstruction practices. The increased use of the internal mammary vessels reflects the decreased dissection of axillary tissue to expose the thoracodorsal vessels with sentinel lymph node biopsy in addition to concern that a subsequent axillary surgery to remove additional axillary nodes might injure the thoracodorsal vessels should they be used in breast reconstruction. Awareness of the decreased morbidity associated with sentinel lymph node biopsy has led patients to expect less morbidity and better aesthetic outcomes from TRAM flap reconstruction.

The impact of immediate breast reconstruction on the technical delivery of postmastectomy radiotherapy

PURPOSE

To quantify the impact of immediate breast reconstruction on postmastectomy radiation therapy (PMRT) planning.

METHODS

A total of 110 patients (112 treatment plans) who had mastectomy with immediate reconstruction followed by radiotherapy were compared with contemporaneous stage-matched patients who had undergone mastectomy without intervening reconstruction. A scoring system was used to assess optimal radiotherapy planning using four parameters: breadth of chest wall coverage, treatment of the ipsilateral internal mammary chain, minimization of lung, and avoidance of heart. An "optimal" plan achieved all objectives or a minor 0.5 point deduction; "moderately" compromised treatment plans had 1.0 or 1.5 point deductions; and "major" compromised plans had > or =2.0 point deductions.

RESULTS

Of the 112 PMRT plans scored after reconstruction, 52% had compromises compared with 7% of matched controls (p < 0.0001). Of the compromised plans after reconstruction, 33% were considered to be moderately compromised plans and 19% were major compromised treatment plans. Optimal chest wall coverage, treatment of the ipsilateral internal mammary chain, lung minimization, and heart avoidance was achieved in 79%, 45%, 84%, and 84% of the plans in the group undergoing immediate reconstruction, compared respectively with 100%, 93%, 97%, and 92% of the plans in the control group (p < 0.0001, p < 0.0001, p = 0.0015, and p = 0.1435). In patients with reconstructions, 67% of the "major" compromised radiotherapy plans were left-sided (p < 0.16).

CONCLUSIONS

Radiation treatment planning after immediate breast reconstruction was compromised in more than half of the patients (52%), with the largest compromises observed in those with left-sided cancers. For patients with locally advanced breast cancer, the potential for compromised PMRT planning should be considered when deciding between immediate and delayed reconstruction.

Pelvic, abdominal, and chest wall reconstruction with AlloDerm in patients at increased risk for mesh-related complications

BACKGROUND

The use of polypropylene mesh in the reconstruction of trunk defects increases complication rates when the mesh is placed directly over viscera or the operative site has been irradiated or contaminated with bacteria. An alternative is AlloDerm (decellularized human cadaveric dermis), which becomes vascularized and remodeled into autologous tissue after implantation. When used for fascial reconstruction, AlloDerm forms a strong repair, causes minimal abdominal adhesions, and resists infection.

METHODS

We did a retrospective study of cancer patients at increased risk for mesh-related complications who underwent trunk reconstruction with AlloDerm over a 1-year period. Risk factors included unavoidable placement of mesh directly over the bowel or lung, perioperative irradiation, and/or bacterial contamination of the defect. The indications, defect characteristics, reconstructive techniques, complications, and surgical outcomes were evaluated.

RESULTS

Thirteen patients were included in the study. Indications for reconstruction were oncologic resection, resection of enterocutaneous fistula, and/or ventral hernia repair. Seven patients had bacterial contamination at the operative site and seven patients received perioperative radiation. The mean musculofascial defect size was 435 cm. AlloDerm was placed directly over the bowel or lung in all patients. Nine patients required flap reconstruction, including 14 pedicled and two free flaps. The mean follow-up was 6.4 months. Complications occurred in six patients, however, there were no clinically evident mesh infections, hernias, or bulges.

CONCLUSIONS

AlloDerm successfully can be used in reconstructions for large, complex pelvic, chest, and abdominal wall defects even when placed directly over viscera and when the operative field is irradiated and/or contaminated with bacteria.

Determining the optimal approach to breast reconstruction after partial mastectomy

BACKGROUND

Unfortunately, patients who desire repair of contour deformities after partial mastectomy usually present after radiation therapy, which may increase the risk of complications and result in a poor aesthetic outcome. The authors reviewed their experience with repair of partial mastectomy defects to determine the optimal approach to breast reconstruction after partial mastectomy.

METHODS

Sixty-nine patients who underwent repair of a partial mastectomy defect and received radiation therapy were included in this analysis. The reconstructive techniques were categorized as local tissue rearrangement (LTR), breast reduction, or use of a latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flap or thoracoepigastric skin flap (hereafter referred to as "flap").

RESULTS

Fifty patients underwent immediate reconstruction before radiation therapy, and 19 underwent delayed reconstruction after radiation therapy. The reconstructive techniques in patients with immediate reconstruction were local tissue rearrangement in 28 percent, breast reduction in 66 percent, and flaps in 6 percent. In patients with delayed reconstruction, 32 percent had local tissue rearrangement, 42 percent had breast reduction, and 26 percent had flaps. The complication rates for immediate and delayed reconstruction were 26 percent and 42 percent, respectively. Overall, and in the setting of immediate reconstruction, the flap technique was associated with a higher complication rate than local tissue rearrangement and breast reduction. However, in the setting of delayed reconstruction, the flap technique was associated with a lower complication rate than the other two techniques. Fifty-seven percent of the immediate reconstructions performed with the local tissue rearrangement or breast reduction technique, but only 33 percent of the immediate reconstructions performed with the flap technique, were associated with an excellent or good aesthetic outcome.

CONCLUSION

Immediate repair of partial mastectomy defects with local tissues results in a lower risk of complications and better aesthetic outcomes than immediate repair of partial mastectomy defects with a latissimus dorsi flap.

Advances and surgical decision-making for breast reconstruction

In patients who undergo breast reconstruction after mastectomy, choosing the appropriate timing and the best method of reconstruction are essential to optimize outcomes and to minimize the potential for postoperative complications. At The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, the clinicopathologic factors that are used in the surgical decision-making for breast reconstruction after mastectomy include the breast cancer stage, status of axillary sentinel lymph node, smoking status, body habitus, preexisting scars, prior radiation therapy, and planned or previous chemotherapy. Immediate breast reconstruction after mastectomy is preferable for patients who have a low risk of requiring postmastectomy radiation therapy (PMRT) (Stage I breast cancer). Delayed reconstruction may be preferable in patients who are deemed preoperatively to require PMRT (Stage III breast cancer) to avoid difficulties associated with radiation delivery after an immediate breast reconstruction. In patients who are deemed preoperatively to be at an increased risk of requiring PMRT (Stage II breast cancer), delayed-immediate breast reconstruction may provide an additional option. The approach to breast reconstruction will need to be adapted to maintain an appropriate balance between minimizing the risk of recurrence and providing the best possible aesthetic outcomes as the indications for PMRT and other treatment modalities continue to change.

Immediate Breast Reconstruction can Impact Postmastectomy Irradiation

OBJECTIVE

Immediate breast reconstruction is an attractive option for patients who undergo mastectomy. The purpose of this study was to qualitatively assess the effect of immediate reconstruction on the design of postmastectomy radiotherapy fields at our institution.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed the records of 152 patients treated at our institution with postmastectomy radiotherapy over a 1-year period. We identified 18 postmastectomy radiotherapy plans in the setting of prior reconstruction. By consensus, 2 board-certified radiation oncologists scored the 18 plans in terms of 4 outcomes: coverage of the chest wall breadth, coverage of the ipsilateral internal mammary chain (IMC) region, minimization of lung exposure, and avoidance of the heart.

RESULTS

Only 4 of the 18 plans resulted in optimal treatment of the chest wall breadth and IMC region while well avoiding the heart and lung. Of the remaining 14 plans, 12 compromised coverage of the chest wall breadth medially and/or laterally, and 9 provided no IMC coverage.

CONCLUSION

Immediate breast reconstruction may impose limitations on the treatment planning of postmastectomy radiotherapy, particularly in regard to providing broad coverage of the chest wall and IMC region while avoiding excess exposure of the heart and lung.

Technical variations of the bipedicled TRAM flap in unilateral breast reconstruction: effects of conventional versus microsurgical techniques of pedicle transfer on complications rates

In cases of unilateral breast reconstruction with a transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous (TRAM) flap, poorly perfused tissue, which is normally excised to avoid subsequent fat necrosis, must sometimes be used to achieve adequate breast size and projection. In such cases, incorporation of a second vascular pedicle into the flap design improves perfusion. The authors retrospectively examined their experience with bipedicled TRAM flap-based unilateral breast reconstruction to determine whether the use of microsurgical rather than conventional (nonmicrosurgical) techniques for flap transfer resulted in lower incidences of flap-site fat necrosis and donor-site hernia/bulge. The authors retrospectively reviewed the medical records of all patients who underwent unilateral breast reconstruction with a bipedicled TRAM or deep inferior epigastric perforator flap between January of 1991 and March of 2001. Group 1 consisted of patients who had undergone flap transfer using a conventional technique for both pedicles; group 2, patients who had flap transfer using a conventional technique for one pedicle and a microsurgical technique for the other; and group 3, patients who had flap transfer using a microsurgical technique for both pedicles. Of the 863 patients identified, 72 (8.3 percent) had undergone reconstruction using a bipedicled flap. There were 43 patients in group 1, 24 patients in group 2, and five patients in group 3. Only one case of total flap loss had occurred (group 1). Partial flap loss occurred in two patients in group 1 (5 percent) and three patients in group 2 (13 percent). Fat necrosis occurred more frequently in groups 1 (23 percent) and 2 (29 percent) than in group 3 (0 percent) (p = 0.5, Fisher's exact test). Similarly, bulge or hernia was more common in groups 1 (12 percent) and 2 (4 percent) than in group 3 (0 percent) (p = 0.6, Fisher's exact test). In this study, patients who received a bipedicled TRAM flap using microsurgical techniques alone (group 3) appeared to have better flap perfusion and less frequent hernia/bulge than did patients who underwent flap transfer using conventional (group 1) or combined techniques (group 2). However, these differences were not statistically significant, and this trend must be verified in a larger study.

Breast Reconstruction with Postmastectomy Radiation Therapy: Current Issues

Two recent trials have demonstrated superior locoregional control, disease-free survival, and overall survival in node-positive breast cancer patients with the addition of postmastectomy radiation therapy to mastectomy and chemotherapy. Based on these results, there has been an increased use of postmastectomy in patients with early-stage breast cancer. The inability to determine which patients will require postmastectomy radiation therapy has increased the complexity of planning for immediate breast reconstruction. There are two potential problems with performing an immediate breast reconstruction in a patient who will require postmastectomy radiation therapy. One problem is that postmastectomy radiation therapy can adversely affect the aesthetic outcome of an immediate breast reconstruction. Several studies have evaluated the outcomes of breast reconstructions that were performed before radiation therapy and have revealed a high incidence of complications and poor aesthetic outcomes. Furthermore, these studies have found that often an additional flap is required to restore breast shape and symmetry. The other potential problem is that an immediate breast reconstruction can interfere with the delivery of postmastectomy radiation therapy. During planning for immediate breast reconstruction, it is imperative to carefully review the stage of disease and the likelihood the patient will require postmastectomy radiation therapy. Unfortunately, the ability to detect and predict the presence or extent of axillary lymph node involvement is limited, and the need for postmastectomy radiation therapy is usually not known until after mastectomy. In all cases of decision making regarding possible postoperative radiation therapy and whether or not to perform immediate breast reconstruction, the situation should be discussed at a multidisciplinary conference or addressed among the various medical, surgical, and radiation teams, with active participation by the patient. Immediate breast reconstruction probably should be avoided in patients known to require postmastectomy radiation therapy and delayed until it is certain the therapy will be needed in patients who may require the therapy.

Delayed-Immediate Breast Reconstruction

In patients with early-stage breast cancer who are scheduled to undergo mastectomy and desire breast reconstruction, the optimal timing of reconstruction depends on whether postmastectomy radiation therapy will be needed. Immediate reconstruction offers the best aesthetic outcomes if postmastectomy radiation therapy is not needed, but if postmastectomy radiation therapy is required, delayed reconstruction is preferable to avoid potential aesthetic and radiation-delivery problems. Unfortunately, the need for postmastectomy radiation therapy cannot be reliably determined until review of the permanent tissue sections. The authors recently implemented a two-stage approach, delayed-immediate breast reconstruction, to optimize reconstruction in patients at risk for requiring postmastectomy radiation therapy when the need for postmastectomy radiation therapy is not known at the time of mastectomy. Stage 1 consists of skin-sparing mastectomy with insertion of a completely filled textured saline tissue expander. After review of permanent sections, patients who did not require post-mastectomy radiation therapy underwent immediate reconstruction (stage 2) and patients who required postmastectomy radiation therapy completed postmastectomy radiation therapy and then underwent standard delayed reconstruction. In this study, the feasibility and outcomes of this approach were reviewed. Fourteen patients were treated with delayed-immediate reconstruction between May of 2002 and June of 2003. Twelve patients had unilateral reconstruction and two patients had bilateral reconstruction, for a total of 16 treated breasts. All patients completed stage 1. Tissue expanders were inserted subpectorally in 15 breasts and subcutaneously in one breast. The mean intraoperative expander fill volume was 475 cc (range, 250 to 750 cc). Three patients required postmastectomy radiation therapy and underwent delayed reconstruction. Eleven patients did not require postmastectomy radiation therapy. Nine patients had 11 breast reconstructions (stage 2), six with free transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous (TRAM) flaps, one with a superior gluteal artery perforator flap, and four with a latissimus dorsi flap plus an implant. The median interval between stages was 13 days (range, 11 to 22 days). Two patients who did not require postmastectomy radiation therapy have not yet had stage 2 reconstruction, one because she wished to delay reconstruction and the other because she required additional tissue expansion before permanent implant placement. Six complications occurred. The stage 1 complications involved two cases of mastectomy skin necrosis in patients who required post-mastectomy radiation therapy; one patient required removal of the subcutaneously placed expander before postmastectomy radiation therapy and the other patient had a subpectorally placed expander that only required local wound care. The stage 2 complications were a recipient-site seroma in a patient with a latissimus dorsi flap, a recipient-site hematoma in the patient with the superior gluteal artery perforator flap, and two arterial thromboses in patients with TRAM flaps. Both TRAM flaps were salvaged. Delayed-immediate reconstruction is technically feasible and safe in patients with early-stage breast cancer who may require postmastectomy radiation therapy. With this approach, patients who do not require postmastectomy radiation therapy can achieve aesthetic outcomes essentially the same as those with immediate reconstruction, and patients who require postmastectomy radiation therapy can avoid the aesthetic and radiation-delivery problems that can occur after an immediate breast reconstruction.

Treatment and outcome of patients with chest wall recurrence after mastectomy and breast reconstruction

BACKGROUND

Chest wall recurrence (CWR) in the setting of previous mastectomy and breast reconstruction can pose complex management dilemmas for clinicians. We examined the impact of breast reconstruction on the treatment and outcomes of patients who subsequently developed a CWR.

METHODS

Between 1988 and 1998, 155 breast cancer patients with CWR after mastectomy were evaluated at our center. Of these patients, 27 had previously undergone breast reconstruction (immediate in 20; delayed in 7). Clinicopathologic features, treatment decisions, and outcomes were compared between the patients with and without previous breast reconstruction. Nonparametric statistics were used to analyse the data.

RESULTS

There were no significant differences between the reconstruction and no-reconstruction groups in time to CWR, size of the CWR, number of nodules, ulceration, erythema, and association of CWR with nodal metastases. In patients with previous breast reconstruction, surgical resection of the CWR and repair of the resulting defect tended to be more complex and was more likely to require chest wall reconstruction by the plastic surgery team rather than simple excision or resection with primary closure (26% [7 of 27] versus 8% [10 of 128], P = 0.013). Risk of a second CWR, risk of distant metastases, median overall survival after CWR, and distant-metastasis-free survival after CWR did not differ significantly between patients with and without previous breast reconstruction.

CONCLUSIONS

Breast reconstruction after mastectomy does not influence the clinical presentation or prognosis of women who subsequently develop a CWR. Collaboration with a plastic surgery team may be beneficial in the surgical management of these patients.

The effect of ethnicity on immediate reconstruction rates after mastectomy for breast cancer

BACKGROUND

Multiple factors may influence whether patients undergo immediate breast reconstruction along with mastectomy for breast cancer. The authors investigated whether ethnicity was an independent predictor of immediate breast reconstruction.

METHODS

The authors identified 1004 patients who underwent mastectomy for breast cancer during the period 2001-2002. The rates of immediate reconstruction among different ethnicities were evaluated using the chi-square test. Logistic regression was used to adjust for covariates, including age and disease stage. Medical records were analyzed to identify factors that influenced each patient's decision for or against immediate breast reconstruction.

RESULTS

Three hundred seventy-six women (37.5%) underwent immediate breast reconstruction: This included 20.2% of African-American women, compared with 40.0% of white women, 42.0% of Hispanic women, 42.2% of Asian women, and 10.0% of Middle Eastern women (P < 0.001). The unadjusted odds ratio (OR) for immediate reconstruction for African-Americans versus whites was 0.38 (95% confidence interval [95% CI], 0.23-0.63; P < 0.001). After multivariate analysis, this disparity persisted, with an adjusted OR of 0.34 (95% CI, 0.18-0.62; P = 0.001). Asian women had lower rates of immediate reconstruction compared with white women (adjusted OR, 0.50; 95% CI, 0.24-1.04; P = 0.06). Hispanic women did not have immediate reconstruction rates that differed significantly from white women. Middle Eastern women had lower rates of immediate reconstruction compared with white women (adjusted OR, 0.08; 95% CI, 0.02-0.38; P = 0.002), but they had a corresponding increase in the rate of delayed reconstruction. In a stepwise analysis of the decision pathway to immediate reconstruction, it was found that African-American women were less likely to be offered referrals for reconstruction, were less likely to accept offered referrals, were less likely to be offered reconstruction, and were less likely to elect reconstruction if it was offered.

CONCLUSIONS

African-American women underwent immediate breast reconstruction at significantly lower rates compared with white women, Hispanic women, and Asian women. After adjusting for covariates, including age and disease stage, African-American women and Asian women had lower rates of reconstruction compared with white women. The factors that contribute to these differences warrant further study.

Optimizing Autologous Breast Reconstruction in Thin Patients

Breast reconstruction with a transverse rectus abdominis myocutaneous (TRAM) flap plus an implant has been proposed as an option for women with a thin body habitus who do not have sufficient abdominal tissue to permit reconstruction with a TRAM flap alone. The standard autologous tissue reconstructive procedure in these women is a combined latissimus dorsi myocutaneous flap and breast implant. We reviewed our experience performing TRAM flap/implant and latissimus dorsi flap/implant breast reconstruction to compare complication rates and aesthetic outcomes between these two types of reconstruction. Between 1992 and 1999, 88 breasts were reconstructed at our institution using an autologous tissue flap combined with a breast implant (44 with a TRAM flap/implant and 44 with a latissimus dorsi flap/implant). Recipient-site and donor-site complications for the two procedures were compared using Fisher's exact test; a panel of unbiased, blinded judges compared the aesthetic outcomes. The recipient-site complication rate was lower for the TRAM flap/implant group than for the latissimus dorsi flap/implant group (18 percent versus 34 percent, p = 0.09). Most recipient-site complications in the TRAM flap/implant group were related to fluid collection around the implant. In the TRAM flap/implant group, complications occurred in 37 percent of the reconstructions that had immediate implant placement and in none of the reconstructions with delayed implant placement (p = 0.01). In the TRAM flap/implant reconstructions with immediate implant placement, the recipient-site complication rate was 50 percent when implants were completely filled with saline, but no complications occurred with incompletely filled, postoperatively adjustable implants (p = 0.03). No microvascular complications occurred with immediate placement of breast implants under TRAM flaps. Donor-site complications included a hematoma, a seroma, and an umbilical necrosis in the TRAM flap/implant group and six cases of seroma formation in the latissimus dorsi flap/implant group. The comparison of aesthetic outcome was statistically significant for the TRAM flap/implant group, which had a higher overall mean score than the latissimus dorsi flap/implant group did (3.29 versus 2.85, p = 0.01). The results of this study suggest that the TRAM flap/implant breast reconstruction should be considered as an alternative to the latissimus dorsi flap/implant breast reconstruction in women with a thin body habitus.

Implications of axillary sentinel lymph node biopsy in immediate autologous breast reconstruction

For patients with invasive breast cancer, if the results of an axillary sentinel node biopsy are determined to be positive after permanent pathologic examination, the current recommendation is to perform a complete axillary node dissection. Subsequent axillary surgery may compromise the blood supply to an immediate autologous breast reconstruction. The purpose of this study was to determine which clinicopathologic factors in clinically node-negative breast cancer patients may be associated with an increased risk of positive axillary nodes. Identification of these factors will allow surgeons to modify their approach to immediate autologous breast reconstruction in these high-risk patients. The relationship between presenting clinicopathologic characteristics and the incidence of axillary metastases was analyzed by chi-square test and multivariate analysis in 167 patients with invasive breast cancer and a clinically negative axilla who underwent modified radical mastectomy with an immediate free transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous (TRAM) flap reconstruction. Axillary nodal metastases were found in 35 percent of clinically node-negative breast cancer patients. Multivariate analysis showed that patient age of 50 years or younger (p = 0.019), T2 tumor stage or greater (p = 0.031), and presence of lymphovascular invasion on the initial biopsy specimen (p < 0.001) were independent predictors of axillary metastases in clinically node-negative patients. Based on these results, the authors propose an algorithm for decision making in clinically node-negative breast cancer patients who desire autologous breast reconstruction and sentinel lymph node biopsy. Options for immediate autologous breast reconstruction in patients undergoing mastectomy and axillary sentinel lymph node biopsy that may minimize the risk of vascular damage on reoperation include the use of the internal mammary artery and vein as recipient vessels for a free TRAM flap or a pedicled TRAM flap. If an axillary-based blood supply is used, the authors are considering the use of cadaveric dermis to isolate the pedicle of the flap away from the remaining axillary contents. New developments in breast cancer diagnosis and treatment necessitate a team approach, with increased communication between the breast surgeon and the plastic surgeon in planning surgery for these patients.

Transcutaneous oxygen tension in subjects with tetraplegia with and without pressure ulcers: a preliminary report

This study compared transcutaneous oxygen tension (TcpO2) in subjects with paraplegia and pressure ulcers (PU), those with paraplegia and no pressure ulcer (NPU), and ambulatory controls. TcpO2 was measured using a surface-electrode monitoring system, recorded at 1-min intervals for 5 min and averaged. Mean TcpO2 was significantly lower in the PU than the NPU and control groups (23.53+/-1.83 vs. 58.93+/-2.53 and 79.70+/-6.77 mmHg, respectively, p<0.05). In a PU subgroup (n=4) mean TcpO2 of the pressure ulcer and nonpressure ulcer sides (trochanter or ischium) were significantly different (21.05+/-2.98 vs. 67.65+/-2.11 mmHg, respectively, p<0.001). Additionally, the NPU group demonstrated significantly lower TcpO2 than the controls. PUs had a greater reduction in TcpO2 levels relative to controls than NPUs. No association was found between TcpO2 and duration of injury, completeness of lesion, or smoking history. Thus, TcpO2 may be an effective method to identify individuals who are susceptible to pressure ulcers. The further attenuation of TcpO2 observed in the PU group may be useful to help predict whether ulcers will heal with local care or will require additional treatment.

Endoscopic subcutaneous surgery: a new surgical approach

The purpose of this experiment was to develop a minimally invasive endoscopic technique that utilizes the assistance of carbon dioxide gas insufflation to perform reconstructive and aesthetic procedures within the subcutaneous, fascial, and muscular tissue planes. A standard laparoscopic setup, like that used for laparoscopic cholecystectomy, was utilized to dissect within the subcutaneous, fascial, and muscular tissue planes of swine. Specific instrumentation adapted to this technique includes blunt-tip inflatable ring trocars, a balloon tissue dissector, an ultrasonic scalpel (harmonic), and an endoscopic retrieval bag. The fundamental steps of Endoscopic Subcutaneous Surgery (ESS) were developed by performing reconstructive and aesthetic procedures on swine. Dissection is easier and more precise with this ESS approach because of improved visualization and flexible tissue manipulation. The blunt-tip inflatable ring trocars maintain tight portals of entry, preventing loss of gas and collapse of the functional optical cavity. The ultrasonic scalpel improves visualization by avoiding electrocautery smoke. When compared with endoscopic techniques that use external mechanical retraction devices or primary balloon dissection to perform ESS, this approach offers several advantages, such as (1) it creates a dome-shaped functional optical cavity, not a tent-shaped cavity; (2) it frees the hands of the surgeon and assistant to allow for less cumbersome and more precise dissection; (3) it improves visualization by avoiding instrument crowding; (4) it is less traumatic to the overlying and dissected tissues; (5) it eliminates time-consuming adjustment of external supporting devices; (6) it utilizes the skin's intrinsic elasticity to create a larger functional workspace, (7) it uses carbon dioxide insufflation to delineate the proper plane of dissection; and (8) it utilizes endoscopic equipment and instrumentation that are generally available at most medical centers.