The Role of Intracellular Potassium in Cell Quiescence, Proliferation, and Death

This brief review explores the role of intracellular K+ during the transition of cells from quiescence to proliferation and the induction of apoptosis. We focus on the relationship between intracellular K+ and the growth and proliferation rates of different cells, including transformed cells in culture as well as human quiescent T cells and mesenchymal stem cells, and analyze the concomitant changes in K+ and water content in both proliferating and apoptotic cells. Evidence is discussed indicating that during the initiation of cell proliferation and apoptosis changes in the K+ content in cells occur in parallel with changes in water content and therefore do not lead to significant changes in the intracellular K+ concentration. We conclude that K+, as a dominant intracellular ion, is involved in the regulation of cell volume during the transit from quiescence, and the content of K+ and water in dividing cells is higher than in quiescent or differentiated cells, which can be considered to be a hallmark of cell proliferation and transformation.

Unidirectional fluxes of monovalent ions in human erythrocytes compared with lymphoid U937 cells: Transient processes after stopping the sodium pump and in response to osmotic challenge

Recently, we have developed software that allows, using a minimum of required experimental data, to find the characteristics of ion homeostasis and a list of all unidirectional fluxes of monovalent ions through the main pathways in the cell membrane both in a balanced state and during the transient processes. Our approach has been successfully validated in human proliferating lymphoid U937 cells during transient processes after stopping the Na/K pump by ouabain and for staurosporine-induced apoptosis. In present study, we used this approach to find the characteristics of ion homeostasis and the monovalent ion fluxes through the cell membrane of human erythrocytes in a resting state and during the transient processes after stopping the Na/K pump with ouabain and in response to osmotic challenge. Due to their physiological significance, erythrocytes remain the object of numerous studies, both experimental and computational methods. Calculations showed that, under physiological conditions, the K+ fluxes through electrodiffusion channels in the entire erythrocyte ion balance is small compared to the fluxes through the Na/K pump and cation-chloride cotransporters. The proposed computer program well predicts the dynamics of the erythrocyte ion balance disorders after stopping the Na/K pump with ouabain. In full accordance with predictions, transient processes in human erythrocytes are much slower than in proliferating cells such as lymphoid U937 cells. Comparison of real changes in the distribution of monovalent ions under osmotic challenge with the calculated ones indicates a change in the parameters of the ion transport pathways through the plasma membrane of erythrocytes in this case. The proposed approach may be useful in studying the mechanisms of various erythrocyte dysfunctions.

Cation-Chloride Cotransporters, Na/K Pump, and Channels in Cell Water/Ionic Balance Regulation Under Hyperosmolar Conditions: In Silico and Experimental Studies of Opposite RVI and AVD Responses of U937 Cells to Hyperosmolar Media

Studying the transport of monovalent ions across the cell membrane in living cells is complicated by the strong interdependence of fluxes through parallel pathways and requires therefore computational analysis of the entire electrochemical system of the cell. Current paper shows how to calculate changes in the cell water balance and ion fluxes caused by changes in the membrane channels and transporters during a normal regulatory increase in cell volume in response to osmotic cell shrinkage (RVI) followed by a decrease in cell volume associated with apoptosis (AVD). Our recently developed software is used as a computational analysis tool and the established human lymphoid cells U937 are taken as an example of proliferating animal cells. It is found that, in contrast to countless statements in the literature that cell volume restoration requires the activation of certain ion channels and transporters, the cellular responses such as RVI and AVD can occur in an electrochemical system like U937 cells without any changes in the state of membrane channels or transporters. These responses depend on the types of chloride cotransporters in the membrane and differ in a hyperosmolar medium with additional sucrose and in a medium with additional NaCl. This finding is essential for the identification of the true changes in membrane channels and transporters responsible for RVI and AVD in living cells. It is determined which changes in membrane parameters predicted by computational analysis are consistent with experimental data obtained on living human lymphoid cells U937, Jurkat, and K562 and which are not. An essential part of the results is the developed software that allows researchers without programming experience to calculate the fluxes of monovalent ions via the main transmembrane pathways and electrochemical gradients that move ions across the membrane. The software is available for download. It is useful for studying the functional expression of the channels and transporters in living cells and understanding how the cell electrochemical system works.

Cation-Chloride Cotransporters, Na/K Pump, and Channels in Cell Water and Ion Regulation: In silico and Experimental Studies of the U937 Cells Under Stopping the Pump and During Regulatory Volume Decrease

Cation-coupled chloride cotransporters play a key role in generating the Cl^- electrochemical gradient on the cell membrane, which is important for regulation of many cellular processes. However, a quantitative analysis of the interplay between numerous membrane transporters and channels in maintaining cell ionic homeostasis is still undeveloped. Here, we demonstrate a recently developed approach on how to predict cell ionic homeostasis dynamics when stopping the sodium pump in human lymphoid cells U937. The results demonstrate the reliability of the approach and provide the first quantitative description of unidirectional monovalent ion fluxes through the plasma membrane of an animal cell, considering all the main types of cation-coupled chloride cotransporters operating in a system with the sodium pump and electroconductive K⁺, Na⁺, and Cl^- channels. The same approach was used to study ionic and water balance changes associated with regulatory volume decrease (RVD), a well-known cellular response underlying the adaptation of animal cells to a hypoosmolar environment. A computational analysis of cell as an electrochemical system demonstrates that RVD may happen without any changes in the properties of membrane transporters and channels due to time-dependent changes in electrochemical ion gradients. The proposed approach is applicable when studying truly active regulatory processes mediated by the intracellular signaling network. The developed software can be useful for calculation of the balance of the unidirectional fluxes of monovalent ions across the cell membrane of various cells under various conditions.

Fluorometric Na+ Evaluation in Single Cells Using Flow Cytometry: Comparison with Flame Emission Assay

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Sodium is a key player in the fundamental cell functions. Fluorescent probes are indispensable tools for monitoring intracellular sodium levels in single living cells. Since the fluorescence of sodium-sensitive dyes in cells is significantly different from that in an aqueous solution, the fluorescence signal is calibrated in situ indirectly using ionophores for equalizing external and intracellular ion concentration. Attempts to compare data obtained using fluorescent probes and by direct flame emission analysis are sparse and results are inaccurate.

METHODS

We determined the intracellular sodium concentration in U937 cells by flow cytometry using the Na⁺-sensitive probe Asante Natrium Green-2 (ANG), and by standard flame emission photometry combined with the cellular water determination by cell density in Percoll gradient. The intracellular Na⁺ concentrations was modified using known ionophores or, alternatively, by blocking the sodium pump with ouabain or by causing cell apoptosis with staurosporine.

RESULTS

It is revealed that both methods are comparable when intracellular sodium concentration was modified by ouabain-mediated blockage of the sodium pump or staurosporine-induced apoptosis. The ANG fluorescence of cells treated with ionophores is approximately two times lower than that in cells with the same Na⁺ concentration but not treated with ionophores. Although the mechanism is still unknown, this effect should be taken into account when a quantitative assessment of the concentration of intracellular sodium is required.

CONCLUSION

The sodium sensitive dye ANG-2 is a sensitive and useful probe for determination changes in Na⁺ content and concentration both in single cells and subcellular microparticles. The ANG fluorescence determined in the studied cells in the absence of ionophores, cannot be used as a measure of the real intracellular concentration of Na⁺ if calibration was carried out in the presence of ionophores.

Balance of Na+, K+, and Cl- Unidirectional Fluxes in Normal and Apoptotic U937 Cells Computed With All Main Types of Cotransporters

Fluxes of monovalent ions through the multiple pathways of the plasma membrane are highly interdependent, and their assessment by direct measurement is difficult or even impossible. Computation of the entire flux balance helps to identify partial flows and study the functional expression of individual transporters. Our previous computation of unidirectional fluxes in real cells ignored the ubiquitous cotransporters NKCC and KCC. Here, we present an analysis of the entire balance of unidirectional Na⁺, K⁺, and Cl^- fluxes through the plasma membrane in human lymphoid U937 cells, taking into account not only the Na/K pump and electroconductive channels but all major types of cotransporters NC, NKCC, and KCC. Our calculations use flux equations based on the fundamental principles of macroscopic electroneutrality of the system, water balance, and the generally accepted thermodynamic dependence of ion fluxes on the driving force, and they do not depend on hypotheses about the molecular structure of the channel and transporters. A complete list of the major inward and outward Na⁺, K⁺, and Cl^- fluxes is obtained for human lymphoid U937 cells at rest and during changes in the ion and water balance for the first 4 h of staurosporine-induced apoptosis. It is shown how the problem of the inevitable multiplicity of solutions to the flux equations, which arises with an increase in the number of ion pathways, can be solved in real cases by analyzing the ratio of ouabain-sensitive and ouabain-resistant parts of K⁺ (Rb⁺) influx (OSOR) and using additional experimental data on the effects of specific inhibitors. It is found that dynamics of changes in the membrane channels and transporters underlying apoptotic changes in the content of ions and water in cells, calculated without taking into account the KCC and NKCC cotransporters, differs only in details from that calculated for cells with KCC and NKCC. The developed approach to the assessment of unidirectional fluxes may be useful for understanding functional expression of ion channels and transporters in other cells under various conditions. Attached software allows reproduction of all calculated data under presented conditions and to study the effects of the condition variation.

A Tool for Computation of Changes in Na+, K+, Cl- Channels and Transporters Due to Apoptosis by Data on Cell Ion and Water Content Alteration

Monovalent ions are involved in a vast array of cellular processes. Their movement across the cell membrane is regulated by numerous channels and transporters. Identification of the pathways responsible for redistribution of ions and cell water in living cells is hampered by their strong interdependence. This difficulty can be overcome by computational analysis of the whole cell flux balance. Our previous computational studies were concerned with monovalent ion fluxes in cells under the conditions of balanced ion distribution or during transition processes after stopping the Na+/K+ pump. Here we analyze a more complex case-redistribution of ions during cell apoptosis when the parameters keep changing during the process. New experimental data for staurosporine-induced apoptosis of human lymphoma cells U937 have been obtained: the time course of changes in cellular K+, Na+, Cl-, and water content, as well as Rb+ fluxes as a marker of the Na/K pump activity. Using a newly developed computational tool, we found that alteration of ion and water balance was associated with a 55% decrease in the Na+/K+-ATPase rate coefficient over a 4-h period, with a time-dependent increase in potassium channel permeability, and a decrease in sodium channel permeability. The early decrease in [Cl-]i and cell volume were associated with an ~5-fold increase in chloride channel permeability. The developed approach and the presented executable file can be used to identify the channels and transporters responsible for alterations of cell ion and water balance not only during apoptosis but in other physiological scenarios.

Unidirectional Flux Balance of Monovalent Ions in Cells with Na/Na and Li/Na Exchange: Experimental and Computational Studies on Lymphoid U937 Cells

Monovalent ion traffic across the cell membrane occurs via various pathways. Evaluation of individual fluxes in whole cell is hampered by their strong interdependence. This difficulty can be overcome by computational analysis of the whole cell flux balance. However, the previous computational studies disregarded ion movement of the self-exchange type. We have taken this exchange into account. The developed software allows determination of unidirectional fluxes of all monovalent ions via the major pathways both under the balanced state and during transient processes. We show how the problem of finding the rate coefficients can be solved by measurement of monovalent ion concentrations and some of the fluxes. Interdependence of fluxes due to the mandatory conditions of electroneutrality and osmotic balance and due to specific effects can be discriminated, enabling one to identify specific changes in ion transfer machinery under varied conditions. To test the effectiveness of the developed approach we made use of the fact that Li/Na exchange is known to be an analogue of the coupled Na/Na exchange. Thus, we compared the predicted and experimental data obtained on U937 cells under varied Li⁺ concentrations and following inhibition of the sodium pump with ouabain. We found that the coupled Na/Na exchange in U937 cells comprises a significant portion of the entire Na⁺ turnover. The data showed that the loading of the sodium pump by Li/Na exchange involved in the secondary active Li⁺ transport at 1–10 mM external Li⁺ is small. This result may be extrapolated to similar Li⁺ and Na⁺ flux relationships in erythrocytes and other cells in patients treated with Li⁺ in therapeutic doses. The developed computational approach is applicable for studying various cells and can be useful in education for demonstrating the effects of individual transporters and channels on ion gradients, cell water content and membrane potential.

Computation of pump-leak flux balance in animal cells

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Many vital processes in animal cells depend on monovalent ion transport across the plasma membrane via specific pathways. Their operation is described by a set of nonlinear and transcendental equations that cannot be solved analytically. Previous computations had been optimized for certain cell types and included parameters whose experimental determination can be challenging.

METHODS

We have developed a simpler and a more universal computational approach by using fewer kinetic parameters derived from the data related to cell balanced state. A file is provided for calculating unidirectional Na(+), K(+), and Cl(-) fluxes via all major pathways (i.e. the Na/K pump, Na(+), K(+), Cl(-) channels, and NKCC, KC and NC cotransporters) under a balanced state and during transient processes.

RESULTS

The data on the Na(+), K(+), and Cl(-) distribution and the pump flux of K(+) (Rb(+)) are obtained on U937 cells before and after inhibiting the pump with ouabain. There was a good match between the results of calculations and the experimentally measured dynamics of ion redistribution caused by blocking the pump.

CONCLUSION

The presented approach can serve as an effective tool for analyzing monovalent ion transport in the whole cell, determination of the rate coefficients for ion transfer via major pathways and studying their alteration under various conditions.

Balance of unidirectional monovalent ion fluxes in cells undergoing apoptosis: why does Na+/K+ pump suppression not cause cell swelling?

Cells dying according to the apoptotic program, unlike cells dying via an unprogrammed mode, are able to avoid swelling and osmotic bursting with membrane disruption.There are indications that apoptosis is accompanied by suppression of the Na+/K+ pump and changes in the K+ and Cl− channels. It remains unclear how ion fluxes through individual ion pathways are integrated so as to induce loss of intracellular ions and concomitant apoptotic volume decrease. A decrease in activity of the sodium pump during apoptosis should cause cell swelling rather than shrinkage. We have made the first systemic analysis of the monovalent ion flux balance in apoptotic cells. Experimental data were obtained for human U937 cells treated with staurosporine for 4–5 h, which is known to induce apoptosis. The data include cellular Cl− content and fluxes, K+, Na+, water content and ouabain-sensitive and -resistant Rb+ fluxes.Unidirectional monovalent ion fluxeswere calculated using these data and a cell model comprising the double Donnan system with the Na+/K+ pump, Cl−, K+, Na+ channels, the Na+–K+–2Cl−cotransporter (NKCC), the Na+–Cl− cotransporter (NC), and the equivalent Cl−/Cl− exchange.Apoptotic cell shrinkage was found to be caused, depending on conditions, either by an increase in the integral channel permeability of membrane for K+ or by suppression of the pump coupledwith a decrease in the integral channel permeability of membrane for Na+. The decrease in the channel permeability of membrane for Na+ plays a crucial role in cell dehydration in apoptosis accompanied by suppression of the pump. Supplemental Table S1 is given for easy calculating flux balance under specified conditions.

Analysis of the monovalent ion fluxes in U937 cells under the balanced ion distribution: recognition of ion transporters responsible for changes in cell ion and water balance during apoptosis

Unidirectional (22)Na, Li(+) and Rb(+) fluxes and net fluxes of Na(+) and K(+) were measured in U937 human leukemic cells before and after induction of apoptosis by staurosporine (1 microM, 4 h) to answer the question which ion transporter(s) are responsible for changes in cell ion and water balance at apoptosis. The original version of the mathematical model of cell ion and water balance was used for analysis of the unidirectional ion fluxes under the balanced distribution of major monovalent ions across the cell membrane. The values of all major components of the Na(+) and K(+) efflux and influx, i.e. fluxes via the Na(+),K(+)-ATPase pump, Na(+) channels, K(+) channels, Na/Na exchanger and Na-Cl symport were determined. It is concluded that apoptotic cell shrinkage and changes in Na(+) and K(+) fluxes typical of apoptosis in U937 cells induced by staurosporine are caused by a complex decrease in the pump activity, Na-Cl symport and integral Na(+) channel permeability.

Thymocyte K+, Na+ and Water Balance During Dexamethasone- and Etoposide-Induced Apoptosis

The mechanism of apoptotic cell volume decrease was studied in rat thymocytes treated with dexamethasone (Dex) or etoposide (Eto). Cell shrinkage, i.e. dehydration, was quantified by using buoyant density of the thymocytes in a continuous Percoll gradient. The K+ and Na+ content of cells from different density fractions were assayed by flame emission analysis. Apoptosis was tested by microscopy and flow cytometry of acridine orange stained cells as well as by flow DNA cytometry. Treatment of the thymocytes with 1 microM Dex for 4-5.5 h or 50 microM Eto for 5 h resulted in the appearance of a new distinct high-density cell subpopulation. The cells from this heavy subpopulation but not those with normal buoyant density had typical features of apoptosis. Apoptotic increase of cell density was accompanied by a decrease in cellular K+ content, which exceeded the simultaneous increase in cellular Na+ content. Cellular loss of K+ contributed to most of the estimated loss of cellular osmolytes, but owing to the parallel loss of cell water, the decrease in cytosolic K+ concentration was less than one third. Due to gain of Na+ and loss of cell water the cytosolic Na+ concentration in thymocytes rose following treatment with Dex (5.5 h) or Eto (5 h) by a factor of about 3.6 and 3.1, respectively.

Differential transcription of ion transporters, NHE1, ATP1B1, NKCC1 in human peripheral blood lymphocytes activated to proliferation

This work, using RT PCR, studied expression of mRNAs encoding ion transporters, the Na/H antiporter (NHE1), the beta subunit of the Na,K-ATPase pump (ATP1B1), the NaK2Cl symporter (NKCC1), and some proteins unrelated to ion transport: the serum and glucocorticoid dependent kinase (hSGK), beta-actin, a glycolytic enzyme (GAPDH), and regulators of proliferation and apoptosis (p53, Bcl-2) during activation of human lymphocytes with phytohemagglutinin for 4-24 h. Within 24 hours the mRNA levels of NHE1, beta-actin, Bcl-2, and p53 increased by more than 100%, the mRNA levels of ATP1B1, GAPDH, and hSGK, by about 50%, while the mRNA levels of NKCC1 decreased transiently. These results indicate a differential transcriptional control of NHE1, ATP1B1, and NKCC1 following a proliferative stimulus of human lymphocytes.