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Strindberg S, Maisels F, Williamson EA, Blake S, Stokes EJ, Aba’a R, Abitsi G, Agbor A, Ambahe RD, Bakabana PC, Bechem M, Berlemont A, Bokoto de Semboli B, Boundja PR, Bout N, Breuer T, Campbell G, De Wachter P, Ella Akou M, Esono Mba F, Feistner ATC, Fosso B, Fotso R, Greer D, Inkamba-Nkulu C, Iyenguet CF, Jeffery KJ, Kokangoye M, Kühl HS, Latour S, Madzoke B, Makoumbou C, Malanda GAF, Malonga R, Mbolo V, Morgan DB, Motsaba P, Moukala G, Mowawa BS, Murai M, Ndzai C, Nishihara T, Nzooh Z, Pintea L, Pokempner A, Rainey HJ, Rayden T, Ruffler H, Sanz CM, Todd A, Vanleeuwe H, Vosper A, Warren Y, Wilkie DS. Guns, germs, and trees determine density and distribution of gorillas and chimpanzees in Western Equatorial Africa. Sci Adv 2018; 4:eaar2964. [PMID: 29707637 PMCID: PMC5916511 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aar2964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2017] [Accepted: 03/12/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We present a range-wide assessment of sympatric western lowland gorillas Gorilla gorilla gorilla and central chimpanzees Pan troglodytes troglodytes using the largest survey data set ever assembled for these taxa: 59 sites in five countries surveyed between 2003 and 2013, totaling 61,000 person-days of fieldwork. We used spatial modeling to investigate major drivers of great ape distribution and population trends. We predicted density across each taxon's geographic range, allowing us to estimate overall abundance: 361,900 gorillas and 128,700 chimpanzees in Western Equatorial Africa-substantially higher than previous estimates. These two subspecies represent close to 99% of all gorillas and one-third of all chimpanzees. Annual population decline of gorillas was estimated at 2.7%, maintaining them as Critically Endangered on the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Red List. We quantified the threats to each taxon, of which the three greatest were poaching, disease, and habitat degradation. Gorillas and chimpanzees are found at higher densities where forest is intact, wildlife laws are enforced, human influence is low, and disease impacts have been low. Strategic use of the results of these analyses could conserve the majority of gorillas and chimpanzees. With around 80% of both subspecies occurring outside protected areas, their conservation requires reinforcement of anti-poaching efforts both inside and outside protected areas (particularly where habitat quality is high and human impact is low), diligent disease control measures (including training, advocacy, and research into Ebola virus disease), and the preservation of high-quality habitat through integrated land-use planning and implementation of best practices by the extractive and agricultural industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha Strindberg
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Fiona Maisels
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK
| | | | - Stephen Blake
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
- Department of Biology, Saint Louis University, Macelwane Hall, St. Louis, MO 63108, USA
| | - Emma J. Stokes
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Rostand Aba’a
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Gaspard Abitsi
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Anthony Agbor
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
- Conservation International, 2011 Crystal Drive, Suite 500, Arlington, VA 22202, USA
| | - Ruffin D. Ambahe
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Parfait C. Bakabana
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Martha Bechem
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
- Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)–Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE), MIKE Subregional Office, Yaoundé, BP 5506, Cameroon
| | - Antoine Berlemont
- Conservation International, 2011 Crystal Drive, Suite 500, Arlington, VA 22202, USA
| | | | - Patrick R. Boundja
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Nicolas Bout
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Thomas Breuer
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Genevieve Campbell
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Pauwel De Wachter
- World Wildlife Fund International, Regional Office for Africa, BP 6776 Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Marc Ella Akou
- World Wildlife Fund International, Regional Office for Africa, BP 6776 Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Fidel Esono Mba
- Instituto Nacional de Desarrollo Forestal y Gestión del Sistema Nacional de Áreas Protegidas, Bata, Equatorial Guinea
| | - Anna T. C. Feistner
- World Wildlife Fund International, Regional Office for Africa, BP 6776 Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Bernard Fosso
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Roger Fotso
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - David Greer
- World Wildlife Fund International, Regional Office for Africa, BP 6776 Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Clement Inkamba-Nkulu
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Calixte F. Iyenguet
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Kathryn J. Jeffery
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Stirling, Stirling FK9 4LA, Scotland, UK
| | - Max Kokangoye
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Hjalmar S. Kühl
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
- Robert Bosch Junior Professor, German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv), Halle-Leipzig-Jena, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Stephanie Latour
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
- The Jane Goodall Institute, 1595 Spring Hill Road, Suite 550, Vienna, VA 22182, USA
| | - Bola Madzoke
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Calixte Makoumbou
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Guy-Aimé F. Malanda
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Richard Malonga
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Victor Mbolo
- World Wildlife Fund International, Regional Office for Africa, BP 6776 Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - David B. Morgan
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
- Lester E. Fisher Center for the Study and Conservation of Apes, Lincoln Park Zoo, 2001 North Clark Street, Chicago, IL 60614, USA
| | - Prosper Motsaba
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Gabin Moukala
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Brice S. Mowawa
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Mizuki Murai
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
- Conservation International, 2011 Crystal Drive, Suite 500, Arlington, VA 22202, USA
| | - Christian Ndzai
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Tomoaki Nishihara
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Zacharie Nzooh
- World Wildlife Fund International, Regional Office for Africa, BP 6776 Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Lilian Pintea
- The Jane Goodall Institute, 1595 Spring Hill Road, Suite 550, Vienna, VA 22182, USA
| | - Amy Pokempner
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Hugo J. Rainey
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Tim Rayden
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Heidi Ruffler
- Conservation International, 2011 Crystal Drive, Suite 500, Arlington, VA 22202, USA
| | - Crickette M. Sanz
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
- Department of Anthropology, Washington University, 1 Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Angelique Todd
- World Wildlife Fund International, Regional Office for Africa, BP 6776 Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Hilde Vanleeuwe
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Ashley Vosper
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - Ymke Warren
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
| | - David S. Wilkie
- Wildlife Conservation Society, Global Conservation Program, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, New York, NY 10460, USA
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