Effective Cancer Management: Inimitable Role of Phytochemical Based Nano- Formulations

BACKGROUND

Global cancer statistics defines the severity of disease even after significant research worldwide.

PROBLEM

Failure of the currently available treatment approaches, including surgery, radiation therapy and traditional chemotherapy.

AIM

The aim of this review is to discuss the role of phytochemical based nano-formulations for treatment of cancer.

DISCUSSION

In the past few decades, phytochemicals have gained popularity for acting as a potential anticancer treatment with low systemic toxicity, especially in terms of cell cycle control and cancer cell killing. Natural resources, with their immense structural variety, serve as a vital source of fresh, therapeutically useful new chemical entities for the treatment of cancer. Vinca alkaloids (VCR), vinblastine, vindesine, vinorelbine, taxanes (PTX), podophyllotoxin and its derivatives (etoposide (ETP), teniposide, camptothecin (CPT) and its derivatives (topotecan, irinotecan), anthracyclines (doxorubicin, daunorubicin, epirubicin, idarubicin, as natural products or their derivatives account for half of all anticancer drugs approved worldwide, and they have been developed utilising the knowledge learned from the natural small molecules or macromolecules. Trabectedin, an epothilone derivative, ixabepilone, and temsirolimus, three new anticancer medications launched in 2007, were derived from microbial origins. Current therapy regimens require selective drug targeting to enhance efficacy against cancer cells while normal cells remain unharmed. Modified medications and systems for drug delivery based on nanotechnology are in the process of being explored and launched in the industry for enhanced therapy and management of cancer, along with promising outcomes. Many obstacles related to cancer cell drug delivery can be overcome by using nano-particulate drug carriers, including enhancing the stability and solubility of the drug, prolonging half-lives of the drug in the blood, decreasing side effects to undesired organs, and increasing medication concentration at the desired site. The scientific initiatives and studies concerning the use of nanotechnology for some selective compounds derived from plants are discussed in this review article.

CONCLUSION

The present review highlights the phytochemical-based nanoformulations and their strategies in the development of novel systems of drug delivery such as nano-liposomes, functionalized nanoparticles (NPs), and polymer nano-conjugates, SNEDDS (Self nano emulsifying drug delivery system) as this review paper depicts, as well as their rewards over conventional systems of drug delivery, as evidenced by improved biological activity depicted in their in vitro and in vivo anticancer assays.

Allosteric Site Inhibitor Disrupting Auto-Processing of Malarial Cysteine Proteases

Falcipains are major haemoglobinases of Plasmodium falciparum required for parasite growth and development. They consist of pro- and mature domains that interact via 'hot-spot' interactions and maintain the structural integrity of enzyme in zymogen state. Upon sensing the acidic environment, these interactions dissociate and active enzyme is released. For inhibiting falcipains, several active site inhibitors exist, however, compounds that target via allosteric mechanism remains uncharacterized. Therefore, we designed and synthesized six azapeptide compounds, among which, NA-01 & NA-03 arrested parasite growth by specifically blocking the auto-processing of falcipains. Inhibitors showed high affinity for enzymes in presence of the prodomain without affecting the secondary structure. Binding of NA-03 at the interface induced rigidity in the prodomain preventing structural reorganization. We further reported a histidine-dependent activation of falcipain. Collectively, for the first time we provide a framework for blocking the allosteric site of crucial haemoglobinases of the human malaria parasite. Targeting the allosteric site could provide high selectivity and less vulnerable to drug resistance.

Proteases in Mosquito Borne Diseases: New Avenues in Drug Development

INTRODUCTION

Mosquito borne diseases continue to propagate and cause millions of deaths annually. They are caused either by protozoan parasites such as Plasmodium, Toxoplasma or by flaviviruses including Dengue and Zika. Among the proteome of such parasitic organisms, proteases play essential roles in events such as host invasion, hemoglobin hydrolysis, replication and immune evasion. Plasmepsin V (PMV), an endoplasmic reticulum resident aspartic protease of Plasmodium spp., is involved in the export of ~400 proteins containing the conserved Plasmodium Export Element motif (PEXEL). Interactions and cleavage of PEXEL proteins by PM V is necessary for export to and across the parasitophorous vacuole membrane. Protease System: Similarly in flaviviruses, a two-component protease system consisting of nonstructural proteins, NS2B and NS3, interacts with other non-structural proteins and plays a major role in viral replication, polyprotein cleavage and virion particle assembly. Thus, proteases involved in indispensable roles in pathogen machinery can be considered as attractive drug targets. Inhibitors against proteases are being used in clinical trials for other communicable and non-communicable diseases. Currently, hydroxyethylamine based inhibitors targeting the catalytic site of PM V with picomolar inhibitory concentrations have been tested in vitro.

CONCLUSION

For recently characterized disease such as Zika, no known treatments exist while compound such as Policresulen has high affinity for Dengue NS2B/NS3 complex. Understanding proteases structure-function relationship and protease-inhibitor interactions can provide new insights for novel chemotherapeutic strategies.

Impact of forest vegetation on soil characteristics: a correlation between soil biological and physico-chemical properties

Temperate and dry deciduous forest covers major portion of terrestrial ecosystem in India. The two forest types with different dominant tree species differ in litter quality and root exudates, thereby exerting species-specific impact on soil properties and microbial activity. This study aims to examine the influence of forest type or dominant tree species on soil physico-chemical properties and its relationship with microbial characters in temperate and dry deciduous forest types. We assessed soil physico-chemical properties among five different sites located within the selected forest stand covered by different dominant species. The soil microbial biomass carbon (MBC), nitrogen (MBN) and phosphorous (MBP) were recorded high in oak soil, i.e., the MBC/TOC ratio was significantly higher in dry deciduous forest. Basal respiration was recorded highest at oak-mixed soil while qCO2 was comparatively high in oak soil. Temperate forest displayed the highest MBC/MBN ratio, while dry deciduous forest had the highest MBC/MBP ratio. Moreover, the MBN/TN ratio was found high in dry deciduous forest, whereas MBP/TP ratio was high in temperate forest. Additionally, the enzyme activities were significantly higher in an oak-mixed soil among all the sites. The results displayed that the soil microbial characters and soil physico-chemical uniqueness are interrelated, and were significantly influenced by specific forest type and climatic variables.

Effect of testicular tissue lysate on developmental competence of porcine oocytes matured and fertilized in vitro

The objective of the present study was to investigate the effect of testicular tissue lysate (TTL) on developmental competence of germinal vesicle (GV) stage porcine oocytes. Two types of TTL were prepared through repeated freeze-thaw in liquid nitrogen, one from whole testicular tissue (wTTL) and other from either of four different sections of testes, namely just beneath the tunica albuginea (TA), from the transitional area between the seminiferous cord/tubules and the mediastinum testis (TR) and from the intermediate area (parenchymal tissue origin) and CE (cauda epididymis origin). The whole or section-wise TTL treatments were given for 44 hr during in vitro maturation (IVM). Oocyte maturation was done in either of the two media, namely defined (high-performance basic medium for porcine oocyte maturation, commercially available) and serum containing (TCM199). After maturation, oocytes were co-incubated with fresh spermatozoa for 6 hr and then transferred to embryo culture media. Treatment of GV stage oocytes with wTTL (1 mg/ml) increased the cleavage and morula percentage rate (69.23 ± 6.23 and 48.15 ± 6.77, respectively) than that of their control (58.33 ± 8.08 and 32.54 ± 5.53, respectively) in defined media, and in serum-containing media, cleavage and morula percentage rate were almost equal in both treatment (54.56 ± 7.79 and 34.70 ± 6.78, respectively) and control (59.52 ± 8.21 and 38.52 ± 6.54, respectively). However, effect of wTTL was not significant. In case of section-wise TTL supplements, TR section significantly (p < .01) improved cleavage and morula rate (58.43 ± 7.98 and 36.14 ± 6.89, respectively) followed by TA. In conclusion, present study indicates that IVM, in vitro fertilization and in vitro culture of embryo are improved in the presence of TTL, particularly its TR section. Further study is expected to reveal the principal components of TTL which may prove useful for IVM.

Oleic Acid Coated Gelatin Nanoparticles Impregnated Gel for Sustained Delivery of Zaltoprofen: Formulation and Textural Characterization

PURPOSE

In the present study, we have formulated zaltoprofen loaded, surface decorated, biodegradable gelatin nanogel and evaluated its texture characterization.

METHODS

The method used to prepare gelatin nanoparticles (GNP) was 'two step desolvation' and its surface decoration was performed with oleic acid (OA). The GNP was optimized by DOE software. Nanogels were evaluated for particle size entrapment efficiency, texture properties, SEM, in-vitro, ex-vivo drug release studies, in-vitro characterization, stability and in vivo evaluation of nanogel for anti-inflammatory activity was carried out by carrageenan induced rat paw edema method as an anti-inflammatory experimental model.

RESULTS

The formulated GNP with particle size and entrapment efficiency of optimized batch was found to be 247.1 nm and 76.21% respectively. The SEM of GNP shows smooth and spherical shape. In-vitro and Ex-vivo drug release shows that there was 69.47% and 78.59% drug released within 48 hrs. It follows Ritger peppas model, which indicates sustained drug release. The good texture properties of nanogel were observed from texture analysis graphs.In vivo studies of our formulation give significant results compared to the marketed nanogel. Stability data revealed stability of nanogel formulation up to 3 months.

CONCLUSION

The present approach can provide us promising results of the sustained analgesic activity and the stability of drug within the GNP.

Nano and Microparticulate Chitosan Based System for Formulation of Carvedilol Rapid Melt Tablet

PURPOSE

In the present study rapid melt tablets (RMT's) of carvedilol were prepared by using ionotropic-gelated chitosan nanoparticles using a spray-drying method. Carvedilol is beta-adrenergic antagonist and its oral bioavailability is about 25-35% because of first pass metabolism.

METHODS

The spray-dried microparticles were formulated into RMT's using a wet granulation process. The Formulation and optimization of carvedilol loaded RMTs using nano and microparticulate chitosan based system (NMCS) was done by using 32 factorial designs.

RESULTS

Drug entrapment efficiency of about 64.9 % (w/w) and loading capacity of 14.44% (w/w) were achieved for the microparticles, which were ranged from 1 μm to 4 μm in diameter. RESULTS of disintegration tests showed that the formulated RMTs could be completely dissolved within 40 seconds. Dissolution studies suggested that Carvedilol is released more slowly from tablets made using the microencapsulation process compared with tablets containing Carvedilol that is free or in the form of nanoparticles.

CONCLUSION

RESULTS shown that the development of new RMTs designed with crosslinked microparticle might be a rational way to overcome the unwanted taste of conventional RMTs and the side effects related to Carvedilol intrinsic characteristics. The development of Carvedilol NMCS using ludiflash as RMTs could be used as a promising approach for improving the solubility and oral bioavailability of water insoluble drug.

Design expert assisted formulation of topical bioadhesive gel of sertaconazole nitrate

PURPOSE

The objective of this work was to develop a bioadhesive topical gel of sertaconazole nitrate with the help of response-surface approach.

METHODS

Experiments were performed according to a 3-level factorial design to evaluate the effects of two independent variables [amount of Carbapol 934 = X1) and Sodium carboxymethylcellulose (NaCMC) = X2)] on the bioadhesive character of gel, rheological property of gel (consistency index), and in-vitro drug release. The best model was selected to fit the data.

RESULTS

Mathematical equation was generated by Design Expert® software for the model which assists in determining the effect of independent variables. Response surface plots were also generated by the software for analyzing effect of the independent variables on the response. The effect of formulation variables on the product characteristics can be easily predicted and precisely interpreted by using a 3-level factorial design and generated quadratic mathematical equations.

CONCLUSION

On the basis of product characteristics viscosity, bioadhesiveness, permeation study, in-vitro release, in-vivo studies, TPA and spreadability it can be concluded that the best batch of topical bioadhesive gel of Sertaconazole nitrate would be with 1% Carbopol 934 and 1% NaCMC.

Development and Evaluation of Dual Cross-Linked Pulsatile Beads for Chronotherapy of Rheumatoid Arthritis

In the present investigation, pulsatile release beads were prepared by ionic gelation technique. Lornoxicam dual cross-linked beads were prepared by dropping dispersed phase of lornoxicam, pectin, and sodium alginate into the dispersion phase of different concentrations of calcium chloride solution followed by aluminium chloride solution. The formulated beads were further coated by Eudragit L & S 100 in the ratio 1 : 2 w/w in order to achieve desired lag time. In vitro release study showed lag time of 5-8 h before release of lornoxicam from the formulated beads. Thus, formulated dual cross-linked beads when administered at bed time may release lornoxicam when needed most for chronotherapeutics of early morning rheumatoid arthritis attacks in chronic patients.

Attitude toward mental illness amongst urban nonpsychiatric health professionals

BACKGROUND

This study was designed to examine the attitude of nonpsychiatric health professionals about mental illness in urban multispeciality tertiary care setting.

AIM

To assess attitude toward mental illness among urban nonpsychiatric health professionals.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A cross-sectional study design was used. A pretested, semistructured questionnaire was administered to 222 medical and paramedical staff at two tertiary care hospitals at Chandigarh.

RESULTS

There is an increased awareness of mental illness especially in military subjects. Literacy was associated with a positive attitude toward mental illness. Health care givers commonly fail to ask about the emotional well being of their patients. Many saw referral to psychiatrist as a form of punishment. There is uniform desire for more knowledge about psychiatric disorders in medical and paramedical staff.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates the need for educational programs aimed at demystifying mental illness. A better understanding of mental disorders among the nonpsychiatric medical professional would help to allay fear and mistrust about mentally ill persons in the community as well as lessen stigmatization toward such persons.

NF-κB in Human Disease: Current Inhibitors and Prospects for De Novo Structure Based Design of Inhibitors

Nuclear-Factor kappa B (NF-kappaB) is an inducible transcription factor of the Rel family, sequestered in the cytoplasm by the IkappaB family of proteins. NF-kappaB exists in several dimeric forms, but the p50/p65 heterodimer is the predominant one. Activation of NF-kappaB by a range of physical, chemical, and biological stimuli leads to phosphorylation and proteasome dependent degradation of IkappaB, leading to the release of free NF-kappaB. This free NF-kappaB then binds to its target sites (kappaB sites in the DNA), to initiate transcription. This transcription has been known to be involved in a number of diseases including cancer, AIDS, and inflammatory disorders. The present article focuses on two important issues of current and future interest- firstly a review of the main human diseases which are initiated due to NF-kappaB mediated transcription is presented. Next, comprehensive information on the current inhibitors which are targeted to interfere with the NF-kappaB pathway is provided. This latter section presents a critical review on different types of latest inhibitors targeting the complex NF-kappaB pathway at several stages. The inhibitors developed till date and still under investigation, include mainly those which interfere with the activation of NF-kappaB. Based on the complexity of NF-kappaB activation, and the current knowledge of the structural biology of NF-kappaB-DNA binding, finally it is proposed that a better approach to inhibit NF-kappaB induced transcription exists. In this context, a perspective is presented in the end, proposing de novo design of inhibitors which directly interact with the DNA Binding region of the free NF-kappaB (p50 subunit), so as to generate more specific and selective leads of NF-kappaB-DNA binding.

Nuclear factor kappa B: a potential target for anti-HIV chemotherapy

The Nuclear Factor Kappa B (NF-kappaB) is a lymphoid-specific transcription factor, which is sequestered in the cytoplasm by the protein IkappaB. NF-kappaB plays a major role in the regulation of HIV-1 gene expression. Upon activation, NF-kappaB is released from IkappaB, moves to the nucleus, and binds to its sites on the HIV long terminal repeat to start transcription of integrated HIV genome. The present review focuses on the NF-kappaB as a potential target for the development of chemotherapy against HIV-1. Beginning from the viral-binding to reverse transcription, integration, and gene expression, to the virion maturation, the life cycle of HIV presents drug-targets at all the stages. As a result, many drugs have been developed and have entered clinical trials. Some of the most important of these are reverse transcriptase and protease inhibitors, which have been used mostly in clinical studies in the form of combined therapy. But, this combined therapy has presented the problem of resistance, due to mutations in the virus. However, targeting NF-kappaB for the suppression of virus does not present the problem of resistance, as NF-kappaB is a normal part of the human T-4 cell, and is not subject to mutations, as is the virus. An overview of the NF-kappaB system and its role in HIV-1 is presented, followed by a critical review of its current and potential synthetic inhibitors. The drugs studied against NF-kappaB fall mainly into three categories: (1) Antioxidants, against oxidative stress conditions, which aid in NF-kappaB activation, (2) IkappaB phosphorylation and degradation inhibitors (the phosphorylation and degradation of IkappaB is necessary to make NF-kappaB free and move to the nucleus), and (3) NF-kappaB DNA binding inhibitors. The antioxidants include N-Acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC), alpha-Lipoic acid, glutathione monoester, pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate, and tepoxalin, of which NAC is the best studied. The IkappaB phosphorylation and degradation inhibitors, which have been studied in the context of HIV-1 include the salicylates (sodium salicylate, and acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin)). Finally, the NF-kappaB DNA binding inhibitors, which have received attention only recently, are reviewed. These include the most potential, aurine tricarboxylic acid (ATA), a chelating agent, which has been found to inhibit NF-kappaB DNA binding at a low concentration of 30 micro M. The probable mechanism of action of these drugs is discussed alongwith relevant suggestions and conclusions.

A comparative QSAR study on carbonic anhydrase and matrix metalloproteinase inhibition by sulfonylated amino acid hydroxamates

A quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) study is made on the inhibition of a few isozymes of carbonic anhydrase (CA) and some matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), both zinc containing families of enzymes, by sulfonylated amino acid hydroxamates. For both enzymes, the inhibition potency of the hydroxamates is found to be well correlated with Kier's first-order valence molecular connectivity index 1chi(v) of the molecule and electrotopological state indices of some atoms. From the results, it is suggested that while hydroxamate-CA binding may involve mostly polar interactions, hydroxamate-MMP and hydroxamate-ChC (ChC: Clostridium histolyticum collagenase, another zinc enzyme related to MMPs) bindings may involve some hydrophobic interactions. Both MMPs and ChC also possess some electronic sites of exactly opposite nature to the corresponding sites in CAs. A group such as C6F5 present in the sulfonyl moiety is shown to be advantageous in both CA and MMP (also ChC) inhibitions, which is supposed to be due to the interaction of this group with Zn2+ ion present in the catalytic site of both families of enzymes.

A quantitative structure-activity relationship study on some HIV-1 protease inhibitors using molecular connectivity index

A quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) study has been made on two different series of tetrahydropyrimidinones acting as HIV-1 protease inhibitors. A structural parameter, the first order valence molecular connectivity index ((1)chi(v)), has been used to account for the variation in the activity. The protease inhibition activity as well as the antiviral potency of the compounds are found to be significantly correlated with (1)chi(v) of P(2)/P(2') substituents attached to the two nitrogens N1 and N3, suggesting that substituents containing less electronegative and more saturated atoms, meaning thereby the less polar or more hydrophobic substituents, will be more advantageous. Further, if P(2) and P(2') are dissimilar, the former is found to be more effective than the latter. This difference is attributed to a conformational change in the enzyme that may be more favorable to P(2) binding than to P(2') binding.

Beta-hairpin folding simulations in atomistic detail using an implicit solvent model

We have used distributed computing techniques and a supercluster of thousands of computer processors to study folding of the C-terminal beta-hairpin from protein G in atomistic detail using the GB/SA implicit solvent model at 300 K. We have simulated a total of nearly 38 micros of folding time and obtained eight complete and independent folding trajectories. Starting from an extended state, we observe relaxation to an unfolded state characterized by non-specific, temporary hydrogen bonding. This is followed by the appearance of interactions between hydrophobic residues that stabilize a bent intermediate. Final formation of the complete hydrophobic core occurs cooperatively at the same time that the final hydrogen bonding pattern appears. The folded hairpin structures we observe all contain a closely packed hydrophobic core and proper beta-sheet backbone dihedral angles, but they differ in backbone hydrogen bonding pattern. We show that this is consistent with the existing experimental data on the hairpin alone in solution. Our analysis also reveals short-lived semi-helical intermediates which define a thermodynamic trap. Our results are consistent with a three-state mechanism with a single rate-limiting step in which a varying final hydrogen bond pattern is apparent, and semi-helical off-pathway intermediates may appear early in the folding process. We include details of the ensemble dynamics methodology and a discussion of our achievements using this new computational device for studying dynamics at the atomic level.