Loss of heterozygosity on chromosome 11q22-23 in melanoma is associated with retention of the insertion polymorphism in the matrix metalloproteinase-1 promoter

Matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP-1, collagenase-1), which degrades interstitial collagen, is expressed at high levels by some tumor cells and is thought to enhance their invasiveness and metastatic potential. We recently described a common single nucleotide insertion polymorphism (2G allele) at -1,607 bp in the promoter of the MMP-1 gene that creates a binding site for the ETS family of transcription factors, and that is associated with enhanced transcription of this gene and increased enzyme activity. Allelic loss at the MMP-1 locus on chromosome 11 occurs in many tumors including melanoma, an invasive and aggressive cancer. We hypothesized that although loss of either the 1G or 2G allele from 1G/2G heterozygotes is random, retention of the transcriptionally more active 2G allele would favor tumor invasion and metastasis. As a result, a higher proportion of metastases would contain the 2G genotype than the 1G genotype. We report here the development of quantitative methods for assessing allelic loss at the MMP-1 locus, and demonstrate that 83% of the metastatic melanomas with loss of heterozygosity at this locus retained the 2G allele. This supports the hypothesis that retention of the 2G allele favors tumor invasion and metastasis in melanoma.

Amplification of the MLL region in acute myeloid leukemia

We report amplification of the MLL gene region (11q23-->11qter) in a 72-year-old woman with myelodysplastic syndrome progressing to acute myelomonocytic leukemia and in a 51-year-old man with a history of hairy cell leukemia and secondary myelodysplasia progressing to acute myelogenous leukemia. The amplicons containing MLL were shown by molecular cytogenetics to extend from chromosomal region 11q23 to the distal long arm of chromosome 11 and to be present in the first patient in five copies on a large ring chromosome and present in the second patient also in five copies on two derived chromosomes. Other karyotypic findings in the first patient included del(5q), +8, and der(21)t(17;21), resulting in the loss of a copy of 17p, whereas deletion 7q was observed in the second patient. Southern-blot analysis for the second patient was consistent with MLL amplification but did not demonstrate rearrangement of the germ-line MLL band. Amplification of MLL and the 11q23 region has been documented in only a few cases and appears to be yet another mechanism by which MLL contributes to the leukemia phenotype.

Utility of RET mutation analysis in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2

OBJECTIVE

To review the role of RET mutation analysis in the diagnosis of multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (MEN 2) and in presymptomatic screening for this disorder.

DATA SOURCES

Review of the medical literature and current clinical practice.

CONCLUSIONS

RET mutation analysis is a sensitive and specific test for MEN 2. It plays a pivotal role in the diagnosis and management of patients and families with MEN 2 and in the individual who presents with an apparently sporadic medullary thyroid carcinoma or pheochromocytoma. These disorders may first come to the attention of either the anatomic or clinical pathologist, who has the opportunity to see that appropriate testing is done. As with any familial disease, professional genetic counseling is an important part of the care of these patients.

Kearns-Sayre syndrome with features of Pearson's marrow-pancreas syndrome and a novel 2905-base pair mitochondrial DNA deletion

Kearns-Sayre syndrome (KSS) and Pearson's marrow-pancreas syndrome (PMPS) are rare disorders caused by the same molecular defect, one of several deletion mutations in mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). KSS is an encephalomyopathy with ophthalmoplegia, retinal degeneration, ataxia, and endocrine abnormalities. PMPS is a disorder of childhood characterized by refractory anemia, vacuolization of bone marrow cells, and exocrine pancreas dysfunction. Children with PMPS that have a mild phenotype, or are supported through bone marrow failure, often develop the encephalomyopathic features of KSS. The subject of numerous reports in the neuromuscular, genetic, and pediatric literature in recent years, very few cases of either disorder have ever been studied at autopsy. We report the results of our studies of a patient with clinically documented KSS who presented with renal dysfunction and was found to have a novel mtDNA deletion and degenerative changes in the central nervous system, retina, skeletal muscle, and pancreas.

Recommended policies for uses of human tissue in research, education, and quality control. Ad Hoc Committee on Stored Tissue, College of American Pathologists

As recipients of tissue and medical specimens, pathologists and other medical specialists regard themselves as stewards of patient tissues and consider it their duty to protect the best interests of both the individual patient and the public. The stewardship of slides, blocks, and other materials includes providing, under appropriate circumstances, patient materials for research, education, and quality control. The decision to provide human tissue for such purposes should be based on the specific (ie, direct patient care) and general (ie, furthering medical knowledge) interests of the patient and of society. The same standards of responsibility should apply to all medical professionals who receive and use specimens. This document proposes specific recommendations whereby both interests can be fostered safely, ethically, and reasonably.

Paternally derived de novo interstitial duplication of proximal 15q in a patient with developmental delay

Interstitial duplications of proximal 15q containing the Prader-Willi syndrome/Angelman syndrome (PWS/AS) region have been found in patients with autism or atypical autism. In these cases with an abnormal phenotype, the duplications were maternally derived. Paternal origin of the duplication has been associated with a normal phenotype. We report on a patient who presented with nonspecific developmental delay and partial agenesis of the rostral corpus callosum. Fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) studies using probes specific for the PWS/AS region demonstrated a double signal on one chromosome 15, indicating the presence of an interstitial duplication of proximal 15q involving the PWS/ AS region in the patient. Parental chromosomes were normal with FISH studies. Methylation analysis at exon alpha of the SNRPN locus showed a maternal band at 4.2 kb and a paternal band of apparent double intensity at 0.9 kb, suggestive of one copy of the maternal allele and two copies of the paternal allele in the patient. Microsatellite analysis was informative at the GABRB3 locus in the family, which showed the inheritance of two different paternal alleles and a maternal allele in the patient consistent with the origin of this duplication from an unequal crossing over between the two chromosome 15 homologs in the father. This is the first report of an abnormal phenotype associated with a paternally derived duplication of proximal 15q shown to contain the PWS/AS region by molecular techniques.

Maternal disomy and Prader-Willi syndrome consistent with gamete complementation in a case of familial translocation (3;15) (p25;q11.2)

Maternal uniparental disomy (UPD) for chromosome 15 is responsible for an estimated 30% of cases of Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS). We report on an unusual case of maternal disomy 15 in PWS that is most consistent with adjacent-1 segregation of a paternal t(3;15)(p25;q11.2) with simultaneous maternal meiotic nondisjunction for chromosome 15. The patient (J.B.), a 17-year-old white male with PWS, was found to have 47 chromosomes with a supernumerary, paternal der(15) consisting of the short arm and the proximal long arm of chromosome 15, and distal chromosome arm 3p. The t(3;15) was present in the balanced state in the patient's father and a sister. Fluorescent in situ hybridization analysis demonstrated that the PWS critical region resided on the derivative chromosome 3 and that there was no deletion of the PWS region on the normal pair of 15s present in J.B. Methylation analysis at exon alpha of the small nuclear ribonucleoprotein-associated polypeptide N (SNRPN) gene showed a pattern characteristic of only the maternal chromosome 15 in J.B. Maternal disomy was confirmed by polymerase chain reaction analysis of microsatellite repeats at the gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor beta3 subunit (GABRB3) locus. A niece (B.B.) with 45 chromosomes and the derivative 3 but without the der(15) demonstrated a phenotype consistent with that reported for haploinsufficiency of distal 3 p. Uniparental disomy associated with unbalanced segregation of non-Robertsonian translocations has been reported previously but has not, to our knowledge, been observed in a case of PWS. Furthermore, our findings are best interpreted as true gamete complementation resulting in maternal UPD 15 and PWS.

Rapid, nonradioactive screening for mutations in exons 10, 11, and 16 of the RET protooncogene associated with inherited medullary thyroid carcinoma

Germline mutations in exons 10, 11, and 16 of the RET protooncogene are associated with the heritable cancer syndromes multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) type 2A, familial medullary thyroid carcinoma (FMTC), and MEN type 2B. Nonradioactive mutation analysis with nondenaturing Phastgels and the Phast System was performed on DNA amplified by the polymerase chain reaction from exons 10, 11, and 16 of the RET protooncogene from patients with MEN 2A, MEN 2B, or FMTC. The analysis requires approximately 45-90 min for electrophoresis and 35 min for staining. This assay detected 20 of 21 different mutations that represented approximately 90% of all known mutations associated with these lesions. A rare silent polymorphism within exon 10 was also detected. This form of mutation analysis provides simple, rapid, and highly sensitive nonradioactive detection of mutations known to be associated with MEN 2A, FMTC, and MEN 2B.

The relationship between specific RET proto-oncogene mutations and disease phenotype in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2. International RET mutation consortium analysis

OBJECTIVE

Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (MEN 2) is an autosomal dominant disorder. The 3 recognized subtypes include MEN 2A, characterized by medullary thyroid carcinoma (MTC), pheochromocytoma (pheo), and hyperparathyroidism (HPT); MEN 2B, by MTC, pheo, and characteristic stigmata; and familial MTC (FMTC), by the presence of MTC only. The purpose of this study was to establish the relationship between specific mutations and the presence of certain disease features in MEN 2 which could help in clinical decision making.

DESIGN

Correlative survey study of 477 MEN 2 families.

SETTING

Eighteen tertiary referral centers worldwide.

PATIENTS

A total of 477 independent MEN 2 families.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Association between the position and type of germline mutation in the RET proto-oncogene and the presence or absence of MTC, pheo, HPT, and/or other features in a family.

RESULTS

There is a statistically significant association between the presence of any mutation at a specific position (codon 634) and the presence of pheo and HPT. The presence of a specific mutation, CGC at codon 634, has yet to be associated with FMTC. Conversely, mutations at codons 768 and 804 are thus far seen only with FMTC, while codon 918 mutation is MEN 2B--specific. Rare families with both MEN 2 and Hirschsprung disease were found to have MEN 2-specific codon mutations. Patients with Hirschsprung disease presenting with such mutations should be monitored for the possible development of MEN 2 tumors.

CONCLUSIONS

This consortium analysis suggests that genotype-phenotype correlations do exist and, if made reliably absolute, could prove useful in the future in clinical management with respect to screening, surveillance, and prophylaxis, as well as provide insight into the genetic effects of particular mutations.

Identification of a second human acetyl-CoA carboxylase gene

Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC), an important enzyme in fatty acid biosynthesis and a regulator of fatty acid oxidation, is present in at least two isoenzymic forms in rat and human tissues. Previous work has established the existence of a 265,000 Da enzyme in both the rat and human (RACC265; HACC265) and a higher-molecular-mass species (275,000-280,000 Da) in the same species (RACC280; HACC275). An HACC265 gene has previously been localized to chromosome 17. In the present study, we report cloning of a partial-length human cDNA sequence which appears to correspond to HACC275 and its rat homologue, RACC280, as judged by mRNA tissue distribution and cell-specific regulation of mRNA/protein expression. The gene encoding this isoenzymic form of ACC has been localized to the long arm of human chromosome 12. Thus, ACC is represented in a multigene family in both rodents and humans. The newly discovered human gene and its rat homologue appear to be under different regulatory control to the HACC265 gene, as judged by tissue-specific expression in vivo and by independent modulation in cultured cells in vitro.

Constitutional de novo t(1;22)(p22;q11.2) and ependymoma

There is a body of evidence suggesting the presence of a tumor suppressor gene on chromosome 22 which plays a role in the pathogenesis of ependymomas. We report a patient with a de novo constitutional t(1;22)(p22;q11.2) who developed a malignant ependymoma at age 5. The patient is otherwise phenotypically normal. By fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) analysis, the chromosome 22 breakpoint has been localized to the region between the DiGeorge locus and BCR. Since NF2 and EWS are both distal to BCR, the are presumable not involved in this rearrangement. This patient may offer a unique opportunity to identify the chromosome 22 ependymoma tumor suppressor gene by cloning the translocation breakpoint.

Genotype-phenotype correlation in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2: report of the International RET Mutation Consortium

The International RET Mutation Consortium was first convened as part of the Fifth International Workshop on Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia, Stockholm, Sweden, in an attempt to analyse the relationship of RET mutation and disease phenotype in the autosomal dominantly inherited multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (MEN 2) syndromes. Out of 361 families studied, 41% had MEN 2A, 17.7% MEN 2B, 6.4% FMTC and the remaining subjects were unclassified. RET mutations were detected in 87.3% of families overall. Over 93% of MEN 2B families had the RET 918 ATG-->ACG mutation, while the most frequent mutation detected in MEN 2A families was cysteine codon 634 (87% of all mutations).

Germline RET mutations in MEN 2A and FMTC and their detection by simple DNA diagnostic tests

Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A (MEN 2A) and familial medullary thyroid carcinoma (FMTC) are two closely related cancer syndromes inherited in an autosomal dominant manner. Mutations in the RET proto-oncogene were found in MEN 2A and FMTC families. In this study we report seven different germline mutations in the RET proto-oncogene in five of five MEN 2A and five of six FMTC families. Each of the mutations involves a cysteine residue in the extracellular cysteine-rich domain of the RET receptor tyrosine kinase. We developed simple polymerase chain reaction based diagnostic tests for all seven mutations in these families.

Localization of acyl coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase gene to human chromosome 1q25

Acyl coenzyme A:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) is an intracellular enzyme that catalyzes the formation of cholesterol esters from cholesterol and long-chain fatty acyl-coenzyme A. It is believed that ACAT plays a key role in lipoprotein metabolism and atherogenesis. Recently our laboratory succeeded in molecular cloning and functional expression of human macrophage ACAT cDNA. We have now mapped the ACAT gene to chromosome 1, band q25 by using fluorescence in situ hybridization to metaphase chromosomes, and by Southern blotting analysis of human--hamster somatic cell hybrid panels.

Rapid identification of overlapping YACs in the MEN2 region of human chromosome 10 by hybridization with Alu element-mediated PCR products

An overlapping set of 21 yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs) spanning the RET proto-oncogene [Takahashi et al., Oncogene 3 (1988) 571-578] and D10S102 markers on human chromosome 10 was isolated in a series of hybridization-based chromosomal walks in a YAC library. Genetic linkage analyses implicate this chromosomal region as the location of the gene (MEN2A) responsible for multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A. Four YACs carrying a RET sequence-tagged site (STS) and two YACs carrying a D10S102 STS were used to initiate chromosome walks. These were based on hybridization of Alu element-mediated polymerase chain reaction (Alu-PCR) products from YACs to dot blots of Alu-PCR products from complex pools of YAC clones. The hybridization anchor content of YACs identified in the walks was confirmed by probing blots of Alu-PCR products from individual YACs and by comparing Alu-PCR fingerprints of each YAC. Ten hybridization-based Alu-PCR anchors and three STS anchors were ordered within eleven intervals created by the 21 overlapping YACs. The order of anchors requiring the fewest gaps in the YACs is consistent with the walking results and establishes the STS anchor order as D10S102-D10S94-RET. The overlapping set of YACs represents about 1.55 Mb of the human genome according to restriction mapping of four representative YACs in the contig. These results demonstrate the power of Alu-PCR hybridization for chromosomal walking and provide a rich source of overlapping YACs which can be used to identify candidate MEN2A genes.

Characterization of radiation/fusion hybrids containing parts of human chromosome 10 and their use in mapping chromosome 10-specific probes

We have characterized a panel of somatic cell hybrid cell lines which contain different portions of human chromosome 10. Genomic DNA from the somatic cell hybrids was tested for hybridization with each of an ordered set of probes used previously to construct a genetic map of chromosome 10, as well as several additional probes, previously localized by in situ hybridization. Hybridization of an unmapped probe to the cell line DNAs can be used to determine its most likely position on the chromosome relative to the mapped set of probes. Genomic DNA from two of the cell lines has been used to construct region-specific cosmid and bacteriophage libraries, and clones derived from these libraries were localized by hybridization to the panel of hybrid cell lines. Several of these probes reveal restriction fragment length polymorphisms which have been genetically mapped. Three of the probes map near the locus for multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A, and one of these probes, BG-JC353 (D10S167), maps between RBP3 and TB14.34 (D10S34). Another probe, CRI-J282 (D10S104), is close to the FNRB locus. The panel of hybrid cell lines is thus useful for rapidly localizing unmapped probes and as a source of DNA for the construction of recombinant libraries derived from specific regions of the chromosome.

Hypodiploid, pseudodiploid, and normal karyotypes prevail in cytogenetic studies of medullary carcinomas of the thyroid and metastatic tissues

Medullary carcinoma of the thyroid (MCT), often a dominantly inherited neoplasm, derived from intrathyroid C-cells of neural crest origin, is one of the solid tumors least studied cytogenetically. The cells are difficult to grow in culture, only two cell lines having ever been established. Cytogenetic studies of only 5 tumors have been reported previously. In this paper we report on the cytogenetic analyses of 8 specimens of primary and/or metastatic MCT tumor tissue from 6 patients with familial disease, including more recent metastatic tumors in lymph node and femur of a patient whose thyroid and earlier lymph node metastases were described previously. Some of these specimens were harvested sequentially over time. Hypodiploid or diploid modal numbers prevailed with normal, pseudodiploid, or hypodiploid karyotypes.

Fragile sites and high-resolution chromosome studies in multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A

Affected individuals from four kindreds with multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2A syndrome (MEN-2A), were studied for the possible existence of a specific fragile site that might be associated with the MEN-2A gene. The chromosomes were also examined with high-resolution banding with particular emphasis on those chromosomes (#1, 10, 20, and 22) that have been implicated by previous studies from several laboratories as being associated with this disease. There was no evidence for a unique fragile site or a unique high-resolution banding pattern in subjects with MEN-2A. These findings, in combination with all previous cytogenetic studies, indicate that it is unlikely that current techniques will be useful in developing a simple cytogenetic test for this disease.

Detection of human DNA polymorphisms with a simplified denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis technique

Single base pair differences between otherwise identical DNA molecules can result in altered melting behavior detectable by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis. We have developed a simplified procedure for using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis to detect base pair changes in genomic DNA. Genomic DNA is digested with restriction enzymes and hybridized in solution to labeled single-stranded probe DNA. The excess probe is then hybridized to complementary phage M13 template DNA, and the reaction mixture is electrophoresed on a denaturing gradient gel. Only the genomic DNA probe hybrids migrate into the gel. Differences in hybrid mobility on the gel indicate base pair changes in the genomic DNA. We have used this technique to identify two polymorphic sites within a 1.2-kilobase region of human chromosome 20. This approach should greatly facilitate the identification of DNA polymorphisms useful for gene linkage studies and the diagnosis of genetic diseases.

A cytogenetic study of familial medullary carcinoma of the thyroid

Familial medullary carcinoma of the thyroid (MCT) is a malignant neoplasm of the calcitonin-producing C-cells of the thyroid gland, inherited in an autosomal dominant pattern with a high degree of penetrance. We have studied 26 individuals from 5 New England families with MCT with the goal of finding a cytogenetic test useful in the detection of the presence of the gene. G-banded metaphase spreads, segregational errors of chromosomes, breakage in untreated cells, breakage in bleomycin-challenged cells, and high-resolution banding of prophase/prometaphase spreads were examined; one or more of each of these procedures were studied in at least one affected individual in each of 5 families. All specimens were coded, and slides were scored blindly. All tests were negative with respect to significant differences from controls. We did not observe the minute deletion from the short arm of chromosome 20 that was reported by other investigators to occur in individuals with multiple endocrine neoplasia types 2A and 2B which include MCT. Contrasting results from our study and several other cytogenetic studies of MCT may reflect genetic heterogeneity among the families studied and/or differing environmental factors in various geographic locations that are possibly associated with initiation and onset of the disease.

Cytogenetics of medullary carcinoma of the thyroid

Medullary carcinoma of the thyroid (MCT) is a dominantly inheritable neoplasm derived from intrathyroid C cells. The cytogenetics of this tumor has been only sparsely and indirectly studied previously. This article describes the chromosomes of primary MCT tumor tissue cultured with colcemid for 48 hr, metastatic tumor in lymph node cultured for 7 days from the same patient, and of primary tumor tissue cultured for 3 weeks from a second patient. The modal numbers were 42-44 in all 3 specimens. Karyotypes from the metastastic tumor were similar to those of the primary tumor. Karyotypes of the two primary tumors, however, differed from each other, having in common only the modal numbers and the loss or structural alteration of a #22.

Isolation and growth characteristics of continuous cell lines from small-cell carcinoma of the lung

Sixteen continuous tumor-cell cultures have been isolated from 91 tissue specimens from patients with small-cell carcinoma of the lung. Biopsy and autopsy specimens of primary and metastatic tumors have been utilized. The developing cell lines were recognized by proliferation of tumor cells in the culture from one to 14 weeks after explanation and have been maintained for up to four years. Primary lung tumor, bone marrow aspirations, pleural effusions and other metastases have all been productive explant material for the development of cell lines. Their human origin has been demonstrated by chromosome and/or isoenzyme analysis. Dense core vesicles, characteristically found in small-cell tumor cells were observed by electron microscopic examination of cultured cells. Growth rates in vitro have been measured and the in vitro cycle time in tumors of one cell line (DMS 79) has been compared with in vivo cycle time in tumors arising from DMS 79 cells in nude athymic mice.