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Jenkins DJA, Jayalath VH, Choo VL, Viguiliouk E, Kendall CWC, Srichaikul K, Mirrahimi A, Bernstein CN, Chang TM, Gold P, Haynes RB, Hollenberg MD, Lozano AM, Posner BI, Ronald AR, Vranic M, Wang YT, Chiavaroli L, de Souza RJ, Nishi S, Pichika SC, Gillett C, Tsirakis T, Sievenpiper JL. Does conventional early life academic excellence predict later life scientific discovery? An assessment of the lives of great medical innovators. QJM 2021; 114:381-389. [PMID: 32589722 PMCID: PMC8497073 DOI: 10.1093/qjmed/hcaa210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Perhaps, as never before, we need innovators. With our growing population numbers, and with increasing pressures on our education systems, are we in danger of becoming more rigid and formulaic and increasingly inhibiting innovation? When young can we predict who will become the great innovators? For example, in medicine, who will change clinical practice? AIMS We therefore determined to assess whether the current academic excellence approach to medical school entrance would have captured previous great innovators in medicine, assuming that they should all have well fulfilled current entrance requirements. METHODS The authors assembled a list of 100 great medical innovators which was then approved, rejected or added to by a jury of 12 MD fellows of the Royal Society of Canada. Two reviewers, who had taken both the past and present Medical College Admission Test as part of North American medical school entrance requirements, independently assessed each innovator's early life educational history in order to predict the innovator's likely success at medical school entry, assuming excellence in all entrance requirements. RESULTS Thirty-one percent of the great medical innovators possessed no medical degree and 24% would likely be denied entry to medical school by today's standards (e.g. had a history of poor performance, failure, dropout or expulsion) with only 24% being guaranteed entry. Even if excellence in only one topic was required, the figure would only rise to 41% certain of medical school entry. CONCLUSION These data show that today's medical school entry standards would have barred many great innovators and raise questions about whether we are losing medical innovators as a consequence. Our findings have important implications for promoting flexibility and innovation for medical education, and for promoting an environment for innovation in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J A Jenkins
- From the Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Medical Sciences Building, 5th Floor, Room 5336B 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Centre, St. Michael’s Hospital Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, St. Michael’s Hospital Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael’s Hospital Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Address correspondence to D.J.A. Jenkins, Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Medical Sciences Building, 5th Floor, Room 5336B 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada.
| | - V H Jayalath
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Centre, St. Michael’s Hospital Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Division of Urology, Department of Surgery, Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - V L Choo
- From the Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Medical Sciences Building, 5th Floor, Room 5336B 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
- Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Centre, St. Michael’s Hospital Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Undergraduate Medical Education, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - E Viguiliouk
- From the Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Medical Sciences Building, 5th Floor, Room 5336B 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
- Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Centre, St. Michael’s Hospital Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - C W C Kendall
- From the Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Medical Sciences Building, 5th Floor, Room 5336B 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
- Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Centre, St. Michael’s Hospital Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- College of Pharmacy and Nutrition, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - K Srichaikul
- Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Centre, St. Michael’s Hospital Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Division of Family and Community Medicine, St. Michael’s Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - A Mirrahimi
- Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Centre, St. Michael’s Hospital Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - C N Bernstein
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
- University of Manitoba IBD Clinical and Research Centre, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - T M Chang
- Department of Physiology
- Department of Medicine
- Department of Biomedical Engineering
| | - P Gold
- Department of Physiology
- Department of Medicine
- Department of Oncology, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - R B Haynes
- Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence, and Impact, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - M D Hollenberg
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Inflammation Research Network-Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Alberta Children's Hospital Research Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - A M Lozano
- Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, Toronto Western Hospital, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - B I Posner
- Department of Medicine
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, McGill University, Montréal, QC, Canada
| | - A R Ronald
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Internal Medicine
- Department of Internal Medicine , University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | - M Vranic
- Department of Physiology
- Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Y T Wang
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, DM Centre for Brain Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - L Chiavaroli
- From the Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Medical Sciences Building, 5th Floor, Room 5336B 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
- Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Centre, St. Michael’s Hospital Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - R J de Souza
- From the Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Medical Sciences Building, 5th Floor, Room 5336B 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
- Department of Health Research Methods, Evidence, and Impact, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
- Population Health Research Institute, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - S Nishi
- From the Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Medical Sciences Building, 5th Floor, Room 5336B 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
- Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Centre, St. Michael’s Hospital Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - S C Pichika
- From the Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Medical Sciences Building, 5th Floor, Room 5336B 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
- Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Centre, St. Michael’s Hospital Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Windsor, Windsor, ON, Canada
| | - C Gillett
- Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Centre, St. Michael’s Hospital Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Physical Sciences, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - T Tsirakis
- Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Centre, St. Michael’s Hospital Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - J L Sievenpiper
- From the Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Medical Sciences Building, 5th Floor, Room 5336B 1 King's College Circle, Toronto, ON M5S 1A8, Canada
- Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification Centre, St. Michael’s Hospital Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, St. Michael’s Hospital Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael’s Hospital Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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Noronha JC, Braunstein CR, Glenn AJ, Khan TA, Viguiliouk E, Noseworthy R, Blanco Mejia S, Kendall CWC, Wolever TMS, Leiter LA, Sievenpiper JL. The effect of small doses of fructose and allulose on postprandial glucose metabolism in type 2 diabetes: A double-blind, randomized, controlled, acute feeding, equivalence trial. Diabetes Obes Metab 2018; 20:2361-2370. [PMID: 29797503 PMCID: PMC6175314 DOI: 10.1111/dom.13374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2018] [Revised: 05/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
AIM To assess and compare the effect of small doses of fructose and allulose on postprandial blood glucose regulation in type 2 diabetes. METHODS A double-blind, multiple-crossover, randomized, controlled, acute feeding, equivalence trial in 24 participants with type 2 diabetes was conducted. Each participant was randomly assigned six treatments separated by >1-week washouts. Treatments consisted of fructose or allulose at 0 g (control), 5 g or 10 g added to a 75-g glucose solution. A standard 75-g oral glucose tolerance test protocol was followed with blood samples at -30, 0, 30, 60, 90 and 120 minutes. The primary outcome measure was plasma glucose incremental area under the curve (iAUC). RESULTS Allulose significantly reduced plasma glucose iAUC by 8% at 10 g compared with 0 g (717.4 ± 38.3 vs. 777.5 ± 39.9 mmol × min/L, P = 0.015) with a linear dose response gradient between the reduction in plasma glucose iAUC and dose (P = 0.016). Allulose also significantly reduced several related secondary and exploratory outcome measures at 5 g (plasma glucose absolute mean and total AUC) and 10 g (plasma glucose absolute mean, absolute and incremental maximum concentration [Cmax ], and total AUC) (P < .0125). There was no effect of fructose at any dose. Although allulose showed statistically significant reductions in plasma glucose iAUC compared with fructose at 5 g, 10 g and pooled doses, these reductions were within the pre-specified equivalence margins of ±20%. CONCLUSION Allulose, but not fructose, led to modest reductions in the postprandial blood glucose response to oral glucose in individuals with type 2 diabetes. There is a need for long-term randomized trials to confirm the sustainability of these improvements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jarvis C. Noronha
- Toronto 3D (Diet, Digestive Tract and Disease) Knowledge Synthesis and Clinical Trials Unit, Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification CentreSt. Michael's HospitalTorontoCanada
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of TorontoTorontoCanada
| | - Catherine R. Braunstein
- Toronto 3D (Diet, Digestive Tract and Disease) Knowledge Synthesis and Clinical Trials Unit, Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification CentreSt. Michael's HospitalTorontoCanada
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of TorontoTorontoCanada
| | - Andrea J. Glenn
- Toronto 3D (Diet, Digestive Tract and Disease) Knowledge Synthesis and Clinical Trials Unit, Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification CentreSt. Michael's HospitalTorontoCanada
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of TorontoTorontoCanada
| | - Tauseef A. Khan
- Toronto 3D (Diet, Digestive Tract and Disease) Knowledge Synthesis and Clinical Trials Unit, Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification CentreSt. Michael's HospitalTorontoCanada
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of TorontoTorontoCanada
| | - Effie Viguiliouk
- Toronto 3D (Diet, Digestive Tract and Disease) Knowledge Synthesis and Clinical Trials Unit, Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification CentreSt. Michael's HospitalTorontoCanada
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of TorontoTorontoCanada
| | - Rebecca Noseworthy
- Toronto 3D (Diet, Digestive Tract and Disease) Knowledge Synthesis and Clinical Trials Unit, Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification CentreSt. Michael's HospitalTorontoCanada
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of TorontoTorontoCanada
| | - Sonia Blanco Mejia
- Toronto 3D (Diet, Digestive Tract and Disease) Knowledge Synthesis and Clinical Trials Unit, Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification CentreSt. Michael's HospitalTorontoCanada
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of TorontoTorontoCanada
| | - Cyril W. C. Kendall
- Toronto 3D (Diet, Digestive Tract and Disease) Knowledge Synthesis and Clinical Trials Unit, Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification CentreSt. Michael's HospitalTorontoCanada
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of TorontoTorontoCanada
- College of Pharmacy and NutritionUniversity of SaskatchewanSaskatoonCanada
| | - Thomas M. S. Wolever
- Toronto 3D (Diet, Digestive Tract and Disease) Knowledge Synthesis and Clinical Trials Unit, Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification CentreSt. Michael's HospitalTorontoCanada
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of TorontoTorontoCanada
- Li Ka Shing Knowledge InstituteSt. Michael's HospitalTorontoCanada
- Division of EndocrinologySt. Michael's HospitalTorontoCanada
| | - Lawrence A. Leiter
- Toronto 3D (Diet, Digestive Tract and Disease) Knowledge Synthesis and Clinical Trials Unit, Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification CentreSt. Michael's HospitalTorontoCanada
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of TorontoTorontoCanada
- Li Ka Shing Knowledge InstituteSt. Michael's HospitalTorontoCanada
- Division of EndocrinologySt. Michael's HospitalTorontoCanada
| | - John L. Sievenpiper
- Toronto 3D (Diet, Digestive Tract and Disease) Knowledge Synthesis and Clinical Trials Unit, Clinical Nutrition and Risk Factor Modification CentreSt. Michael's HospitalTorontoCanada
- Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of MedicineUniversity of TorontoTorontoCanada
- Li Ka Shing Knowledge InstituteSt. Michael's HospitalTorontoCanada
- Division of EndocrinologySt. Michael's HospitalTorontoCanada
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