Trajectories of Perceived Parental Psychological Control and the Longitudinal Associations with Chinese Adolescents' School Adjustment across High School Years

Past research supports the detrimental effects of parental psychological control on adolescent school adjustment in both emotional and academic domains. However, how psychological control changes during adolescence, and how such developmental course is related to adolescent psychological well-being and academic functioning are unclear. The direction of effects between parenting and child behaviors is also inconclusive. This 3-year longitudinal study addressed these research gaps by using five waves of survey data on 710 Chinese adolescents of high school ages (Mean age at T1 = 15.54 years, SD = 0.45, 50% males). Using latent growth curve models and latent class growth analysis, the majority of adolescents (about 63%) reported gradual increases of parental psychological control in the first 2 years of high school but a slight decline afterwards, while the other 37% perceived low and stable levels. Results from parallel latent growth modeling suggested that trajectories of psychological control were positively related to developmental trends of internalizing problems (i.e., depression and anxiety) and maladaptive academic functioning, but negatively associated with the trajectory of adaptive academic functioning, as indexed by intercept-intercept and slope-slope associations. The random-intercept cross-lagged models further revealed that psychological control was predictive of adolescent anxiety and lower adaptive academic functioning, and bidirectionally associated with maladaptive academic-related beliefs and behaviors at the within-person level. Taken together, these findings highlight the crucial role of parental psychological control on adolescent school adjustment in the Chinese cultural context and support the reciprocal model of parent-child interactions.

Parental Academic Socialization and Youth Adjustments: A Comparison of Korean Youth in South Korea, China, and the United States

Although parental academic socialization may be a product of culture, ethnic/racial minority status may play a significant role, above and beyond the impact of culture, in shaping parental academic socialization and its implications for youth adjustments. This study examined Korean youth living in South Korea (N = 524, Mage = 14.98, SD = 1.45, 50.1% female), China (N = 267, Mage = 15.24, SD = 1.66, 58.9% female), and the U.S. (N = 408, Mage = 14.76, SD = 1.91, 47.3% female) who share the same heritage culture but have different social positions (majority or minority). Korean youth as an ethnic/racial minority in the U.S. or China reported higher parental academic socialization than those in South Korea, supporting a significant role of social positions in how parents practice academic socialization. This study also found that the distinct practices of academic socialization function differently in youth adjustment. Parental commitment to education, parental involvement, and autonomy support were positively associated with youth's school engagement, but achievement-oriented psychological control was associated with more depressive symptoms and antisocial behaviors. These associations did not differ across the three samples. Some nuanced differences also emerged. Parental commitment to education was associated with higher grades in Korean Chinese (but not Korean American) youth, and achievement-oriented psychological control was associated with lower school engagement among Korean Chinese (but not South Korean) youth and higher grades among South Korean (but not Korean American) youth. These findings highlight the role of academic socialization as an adaptive strategy for ethnic/racial minorities to succeed in host societies and the generally universal role of parental academic socialization in youth adjustments.

A Person-Centered Analysis of Adolescent Multicultural Socialization Niches and Academic Functioning

Despite the growing cultural diversity worldwide, there is scarce research on how socialization processes prepare youth to respond to increasing multicultural demands and the degree to which these socialization opportunities inform youth academic functioning. This study used a person-centered approach to identify profiles or niches based on the degree and consistency of multicultural socialization experiences across school, peer, and family settings and to examine the associations between identified niches and markers of academic functioning (i.e., emotional and behavioral academic engagement, academic aspirations and expectations) in a sample of adolescents (N = 717; Mage = 13.73 years). Participants (49.9% girls) were from the U.S. Southwest and represented multiple ethno-racial backgrounds (31.8% Hispanic/Latinx, 31.5% Multiethnic, 25.7% White, 7.3% Black or African American, 1.4% Asian American or Pacific Islander, 1.4% American Indian or Alaska Native, and 1% Arab, Middle Eastern, or North African). Six distinct multicultural socialization niches were identified. Three niches had similar patterns across school-peer-family but ranged in the degree of socialization. The cross-setting similar higher socialization niche (Niche 6) demonstrated greater socialization than the cross-setting similar moderate (Niche 5) and lower socialization (Niche 4) niches, which had moderate and lower socialization, respectively. Three niches demonstrated cross-setting dissimilarity which ranged in the type of cross-setting contrast and the degree of socialization. The cross-setting dissimilar school contrast socialization niche (Niche 3) had greater dissimilarities between socialization opportunities in the school setting compared to the peer and family settings and demonstrated the lowest levels of socialization of all niches. The other two niches, the cross-setting dissimilar peer contrast (Niche 1) and greater peer contrast socialization (Niche 2) niches had larger dissimilarities between socialization opportunities in the peer setting than the school and family settings. In the former, however, the contrast was lower, and socialization ranged between very low to low. In the latter, the contrast was higher and socialization ranged from very low to moderate. Most adolescents were in the cross-setting similar lower socialization niche or in the cross-setting dissimilar niches. Adolescents in the cross-setting similar higher multicultural socialization demonstrated greater emotional and behavioral academic engagement than adolescents in most of the other niches. Adolescents in the cross-setting dissimilar school contrast niches demonstrated lower emotional and behavioral academic engagement and lower academic expectations than adolescents in some of the other niches. The results emphasize the collective role of school, peer, and family multicultural socialization on emotional and behavioral academic engagement.

Relational Peer Victimization as a Predictor of Academic Engagement

Peer victimization can be detrimental to youth. This study examines a particular type of peer victimization, relational peer victimization, and its effect on students' engagement in the classroom. We specifically investigate the longitudinal relationship between relational peer victimization and academic engagement in a sample of 204 Black 3rd through 5th grade elementary school students by utilizing multiple informants: students and their parents reported on relational peer victimization, and teachers reported on students' academic engagement. Our findings showed convergence between student and parent reports of relational peer victimization and revealed that experiencing relational peer victimization during the beginning of the school year (fall) negatively predicts teacher reported academic engagement towards the end of the school year (spring). Our study suggests that relational peer victimization is a critical issue that educators and researchers should consider when trying to foster academic engagement. There is also a need for further research regarding the role that families play in providing support to Black relationally victimized youth.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Academic Functioning: Reading, Writing, and Math Abilities in a Community Sample of Youth with and without ADHD

Previous studies have shown that Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is marked by impairments in academic functioning in reading, writing, and mathematics. Yet, virtually no studies have examined academic functioning in terms of both basic skills (e.g., word recognition, handwriting/spelling, arithmetic calculations) and more complex advanced skills (e.g., reading comprehension, writing composition, and mathematical problem-solving) within the same sample. In the present study, 518 children with ADHD were compared to a control group of 851 children without ADHD (ages 8-18) and assessed on a comprehensive battery of reading, writing, and math assessments. It was hypothesized that ADHD diagnostic status would uniquely predict performance on advanced skill measures even after controlling for performance on basic skills in that academic domain. ADHD status was associated with worse performance across all academic tests. Results also indicated that ADHD independently predicted performance for measures of writing composition and one measure of reading comprehension, even after controlling for performance on basic skills in those domains. However, ADHD did not independently predict mathematical problem-solving performance. These findings add to the literature on ADHD and academic functioning and indicate that inattention may weaken skills necessary for effective reading comprehension and writing composition.

Disordered sleep and its association with academic performance and functioning

Sleep disorders are prevalent among college students and are associated with poor academic performance. Few studies have included a clinical interview to comprehensively assess sleep disorder diagnostic criteria or assessed academic functioning (e.g., class attendance). College students (n = 277) were recruited to complete sleep questionnaires, a sleep diary for two weeks and, if indicated, a semi-structured clinical interview. Based on questionnaire data, students were categorized as being at risk versus not at risk for a sleep disorder. Based on the semi-structured clinical interview, students were categorized as meeting versus not meeting diagnostic criteria for a sleep disorder. Academic performance and functioning were assessed in all students to determine the association between the presence of sleep disorders and academic performance and functioning. In models adjusted for age, sex, race, and credit hours completed, students at risk for a sleep disorder (38.6% of the sample) reported missing more classes due to oversleeping (p = 0.001) and illness (p = 0.014), and fell asleep in class more often (p = 0.030) than their peers not at risk. Students with a sleep disorder (24.8% of the sample) reported missing more classes due to illness (p = 0.024) than those without a sleep disorder. There were no differences in grade point average between students at risk versus not at risk or with versus without a sleep disorder. Sleep disorder symptoms and diagnoses were significantly associated with worse academic functioning but not performance. Assessment and treatment of sleep disorders early in college students' career may be important for optimal academic functioning.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s41105-022-00423-3.

Effectively Supporting Youth with Chronic Illness in Schools: External Partnerships and Training Recommendations

Across Western countries, approximately 15% to 20% of school-aged children and adolescents have a health-related disorder, with incidence rates of childhood chronic health conditions (CHCs) increasing. This contribution comprehensively reviews disease-level, school-level, and systems-level issues related to effectively supporting children with CHCs succeed from both psychosocial and educational perspectives. This article also delineates training needs as they pertain to graduate preparation and/or professional development to equip school personnel to appropriately address students' needs. The article concludes with recommendations for evidence-based prevention and intervention strategies and potential avenues for interdisciplinary collaboration and models of coordinated care for these medically compromised youth.

Child maltreatment and cognitive and academic functioning in two generations

BACKGROUND

Childhood maltreatment has been associated with deficits in cognitive functioning and poor academic performance. Not known is whether these characteristics are the direct consequence of the childhood maltreatment (that is, maltreatment plays a causal role) or whether other factors explain the relationship.

OBJECTIVES

To examine whether childhood maltreatment predicts cognitive and academic functioning and whether these relationships are explained by other factors (parent cognitive and academic functioning, family social class, or parent maltreatment).

PARTICIPANTS

Data are from a longitudinal study of previously maltreated children, matched controls, and a subset of their offspring (697 parent-offspring dyads) interviewed in 2009-2010.

METHOD

Cognitive and academic functioning were assessed in both parents and offspring with the same measures. Maltreatment was determined through official records. Hierarchical linear regressions were conducted to examine predictors of offspring cognitive and academic functioning.

RESULTS

Childhood maltreatment was associated with poorer cognitive functioning and worse academic performance in both generations. Controlling for age, sex, race, and whether the parent had more than one child in the study, offspring maltreatment predicted offspring cognitive functioning when it was the only predictor in the model. In a final model with all variables, only parent cognitive functioning predicted offspring cognitive functioning and parent academic functioning and parent history of maltreatment predicted offspring academic functioning.

CONCLUSION

These results challenge assumptions that childhood maltreatment directly causes deficits in cognitive and academic functioning. Policy makers and practitioners may need to rethink the design of interventions to improve the cognitive and academic functioning of maltreated children.

The Relationship Between Dating Status and Academic and Social Functioning in Middle Adolescence

Dating relationships are normative in middle adolescence, but the academic and social implications of different types of dating involvement remains unclear. To address this gap, this longitudinal study evaluates the association between dating status (i.e., never date, rarely date, casually date, steady relationship) and academic and social functioning in a sample of adolescents. Across two school years, 455 adolescents (53.8% female; 56.5% Asian American, 43.5% Latinx; T1 M_age = 15.04 years) reported on their dating status and peers provided nominations of popularity and aggression. Grades and standardized test scores were obtained from school records. For Asian American youth, abstaining from dating was negatively associated with subsequent popularity. Casual dating and being in a steady relationship were associated with relational and overt peer aggression over time. Gender moderated this association, such that boys in steady relationships, and girls in casual relationships were more relationally aggressive one year later. Implications are discussed in terms of problem behavior theory and adolescent intersexual competition.

The role of body-esteem in academic functioning problems associated with eating disturbances

To explore the role of body-esteem and self-esteem in the occurrence of academic functioning problems associated with eating disturbances. Participants: 330 university students (aged 16-53 years) in Finland in 2016. Method: Interference with academic functioning measured with the Eating and Body Image Academic Interference Scale. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed to describe the relationship of body-esteem, global self-esteem, and age with academic functioning problems associated with eating disturbances. Results: The level of academic functioning problems was low. High appearance-esteem (OR = 0.26; 95% CI [0.14-0.48]) and a five-year increase in age (OR = 0.68; 95% CI [0.52-0.89]) provided protection against academic functioning problems, whereas high evaluations attributed to others about one's body and appearance increased the odds of such problems (OR = 2.25; 95% CI [1.41-3.59]). Conclusion: Problems in academic functioning may relate to problems in eating behavior, body image, and feelings about appearance.

University students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): a literature review

OBJECTIVES

To review existing literature about university students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).

METHODS

A framework for scoping studies and content analysis were used to source and review selected publications from PubMed, ScienceDirect, Google Scholar and relevant bibliographies.

RESULTS

Seventy-four publications were reviewed and key findings were categorised under six core themes that represent the issues germane to university students with ADHD. These themes are: academic, social and psychological functioning, giftedness, new media technologies, treatment, substance misuse and the non-medical use of prescription stimulants, and malingering.

CONCLUSION

In Ireland and the United Kingdom (UK) young people with ADHD are unlikely to enrol into further education, and of those who do go to university, few will graduate at the same time as their non-ADHD peers. ADHD is associated with poor educational outcomes and it may be a hidden disability within institutions of higher education (e.g. universities). Surprisingly, in this topic area, there is a paucity of research in Ireland and the UK. Most studies originate from North America were research activity in the field has been ongoing since the 1990s. These studies however, tend to use relatively small samples of college (university) students recruited at a single institution. It is difficult to generalise the findings of these studies to student populations in North America, let alone in Ireland and the UK. At the very least, these North American studies provide insights into key areas of concern. This topic area straddles education and psychiatry. This means an inter-disciplinary approach is required to examine, better understand and address the impact of ADHD on the educational outcomes of university students. The philosophies of difference, equity and self-realisation can offer a conceptual framework for conducting further research and/or developing services to deliver more personalised learning support for university students with ADHD.

Dimensions of maltreatment and academic outcomes for youth in foster care

Childhood maltreatment is often associated with youth's ability to successfully function in school. Youth with a history of maltreatment often receive lower grades and scores on tests of academic achievement, as well as demonstrate more negative behaviors in school, as compared to non-maltreated youth. However, there are many inconsistencies in previous studies examining the association between maltreatment and academic outcomes in youth. One potential reason for mixed findings within the literature could be a result of how maltreatment is measured and operationalized. The current study examined if the methods used to define and describe maltreatment contribute to the association between maltreatment and academic functioning in youth. Youth in foster care (N = 490, M_age = 13.13[3.09]) were recruited and information on their maltreatment history and academic functioning was obtained from official agencies, school records, and self-reported measures. Using a SEM framework when examining each dimension separately in the same model, results suggested that frequency maltreatment was more predictive of academic behavior, as compared to type and severity. No dimensions were associated with grades and significant findings were only observed for models using self-report data. However, when examined using a measurement model approach, maltreatment as a whole was associated with school behavior, which was found for both self-report and case file measurement models. The findings suggest a need for research on academic functioning to take a comprehensive approach when measuring and defining maltreatment as this may be a more robust and accurate predictor of academic functioning.

Social and academic functioning in adolescents with anxiety disorders: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Anxiety disorders are highly prevalent during adolescence. Although literature points out that anxiety symptoms are related to problems in social and academic functioning, the extent of these problems among adolescents with clinical anxiety disorders has not been systematically reviewed before.

METHODS

Electronic databases were searched up to October 2017, with keywords representing anxiety disorders, adolescents, and social or academic functioning. The inclusion criteria were studies with a sample of adolescents (10-19 years) with anxiety disorders that provided data regarding their social or academic functioning. 3431 studies were examined, of which 19 met the inclusion criteria.

RESULTS

Adolescents with anxiety disorders had a lower social competence relative to their healthy peers. They reported more negativity within interpersonal relationships, higher levels of loneliness, and victimization. Most adolescents with anxiety disorders felt impaired at school, however, findings of their average school results, compared to peers, were mixed. In addition, they had a higher risk for school refusal and entered higher education less often. Impairments in social and academic functioning differed across type and the number of anxiety disorders.

LIMITATIONS

Most studies examined social phobia or anxiety disorders in general and methodological approaches varied widely between studies.

CONCLUSIONS

This systematic review indicates that adolescents with anxiety disorders experience a range of significant problems in both social and academic functioning. These findings suggest that the assessment and treatment of anxiety disorders in adolescence should focus on improving functioning across domains.

Evidence for a relationship between child maltreatment and absenteeism among high-school students in Sweden

School absenteeism is a potent predictor of academic failure. Maltreated adolescents have been found to be more absent from school compared to their peers. However, it is scarcely studied in what degree a general population of students with high levels of school absenteeism has been exposed to child maltreatment. Furthermore, it is not known if maltreated school-absentees have specific characteristics compared to not-maltreated absentees. In this article, the first objective was to present and compare the prevalence of six types of child maltreatment in a general population of high school students reporting no, moderate or excessive absenteeism. The second objective was to compare maltreated and not-maltreated students who report absenteeism in respect to mental health, perceived school environment and peer victimization in school. Data from 667 girls and 649 boys (mean age 14.3) was used from the longitudinal multidisciplinary research program LoRDIA (Longitudinal Research on Development In Adolescence). Data was collected via self-report questionnaires in classroom settings. All six types of child maltreatment were overrepresented among absentees. Roughly 25% of absentees reported one subtype of maltreatment (16% in the total population) and a mean of 22% of absentees reported two or more types of maltreatment (11% in the total population). Maltreated absentees reported more mental health problems, personal harassment and worse relationship with their teachers than not-maltreated absentees. There might be specific correlates of school absenteeism among maltreated adolescents and professionals involved in preventing school-absenteeism should be made aware of the relationship between maltreatment and absenteeism.

The relationship between nonmedical use of prescription stimulants, executive functioning and academic outcomes

The nonmedical use of prescription stimulants (NMUPS) is a prevalent issue among college students. The primary reason college students report NMUPS is for academic enhancement i.e., to perform better on schoolwork/tests and focus better in class. Executive functioning (EF), which includes abilities that allow for planning, cognitive flexibility, self-regulation, and goal-directed behavior, are potential mechanisms underlying academic performance. Preliminary research has revealed that college students with EF deficits are more likely to have educational difficulties and take part in risky behavior. Based on the literature, it is possible that students with EF deficits are engaging in NMUPS to help them overcome these deficits to succeed academically. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to examine the relationship between NMUPS and EF among a sample of college students. The sample included 308 students from six public universities located in various regions of the United States. Measures used in this study were the SSQ, BDEFS and GPA. Results revealed 18.8% of the general sample reported NMUPS. Participants with clinically significant EF deficits reported significantly higher rates of NMUPS, compared to those without deficits in EF. NMUPS, however, did not moderate the relationship between EF and GPA. The present findings have implications for identifying sub-populations of college students who might be at risk for engaging in NMUPS and to improve prevention and intervention strategies aimed at reducing NMUPS. Limitations and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Longitudinal evaluation of the importance of homework assignment completion for the academic performance of middle school students with ADHD

The primary goal of this study was to longitudinally evaluate the homework assignment completion patterns of middle school age adolescents with ADHD, their associations with academic performance, and malleable predictors of homework assignment completion. Analyses were conducted on a sample of 104 middle school students comprehensively diagnosed with ADHD and followed for 18 months. Multiple teachers for each student provided information about the percentage of homework assignments turned in at five separate time points and school grades were collected quarterly. Results showed that agreement between teachers with respect to students assignment completion was high, with an intraclass correlation of .879 at baseline. Students with ADHD were turning in an average of 12% fewer assignments each academic quarter in comparison to teacher-reported classroom averages. Regression analyses revealed a robust association between the percentage of assignments turned in at baseline and school grades 18 months later, even after controlling for baseline grades, achievement (reading and math), intelligence, family income, and race. Cross-lag analyses demonstrated that the association between assignment completion and grades was reciprocal, with assignment completion negatively impacting grades and low grades in turn being associated with decreased future homework completion. Parent ratings of homework materials management abilities at baseline significantly predicted the percentage of assignments turned in as reported by teachers 18 months later. These findings demonstrate that homework assignment completion problems are persistent across time and an important intervention target for adolescents with ADHD.

Academic Growth Trajectories and Family Relationships among African American Youth

This study explored trajectories of African American youths' academic functioning and assessed whether changes in parent-adolescent relationships were associated with changes in youths' academic functioning. The data were drawn from a three-year longitudinal study of gender socialization and development in two-parent African American families and included 197 families. Findings revealed gender differences in achievement trajectories and indicated that boys not only had lower levels of academic achievement compared to girls, but also experienced steeper declines in school self-esteem during adolescence. Changes in parent-adolescent relationship quality were linked to changes in academic functioning: Increases in conflict were related to decreases in GPA, school bonding, and school self-esteem and increases in warmth were related to increases in school bonding and school self-esteem.

Cognitive remediation for individuals with psychosis in a supported education setting: a randomized controlled trial

Cognitive remediation (CR) has demonstrated good outcomes when paired with supported employment, however little is known about its effectiveness when integrated into a supported education program. This randomized controlled trial examined the effectiveness of integrating CR within a supported education program compared with supported education without CR. Thirty-seven students with psychosis were recruited into the study in the 2012 academic year. Academic functioning, cognition, self-esteem, and symptomatology were assessed at baseline, at 4months following the first academic term in which CR was provided, and at 8months assessing maintenance of gains. The treatment group demonstrated better retention in the academic program and a trend of improvement across a range of academic functional domains. While both treatment and control groups showed improvement in cognitive measures, the outcomes were not augmented by CR training. CR was also associated with significant and sustained improvements in self esteem. Further research, investigating specific intervention components is required to clarify the mixed findings regarding the effectiveness of CR in an education setting.

Practitioners' perspectives on the functioning of school-age children with cochlear implants

OBJECTIVE

The availability of cochlear implants has increased the number of children with profound deafness educated in classrooms alongside peers with normal hearing. The purpose of this research was to better understand the functioning of these children from the perspective of their service providers.

METHODS

Semi-structured focus group interviews were conducted with 28 practitioners to elicit their perceptions of children's abilities in oral communication, academic, and social functioning. Data were coded inductively and examined through content analysis.

RESULTS

The central theme was that cochlear implantation has improved school functioning for children both in hearing and related spoken language abilities and beyond hearing in academic and social development. While these benefits were a consistent theme, a wide range of performance was identified across all areas of functioning. In particular, areas of concern included full participation in classroom activities and social interaction with peers.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings provide insights into functioning for children with cochlear implants from the perspective of those who interact with them in everyday settings. These findings underscore the challenges for children in achieving full participation despite improvements in communication skills. Practitioners identified areas where intervention is required to facilitate the inclusion of children in school programs.

Social and academic functioning in adolescents with child sexual abuse-related PTSD

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the relationship between posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and functioning in academic and social domains.

METHOD

Ninety treatment-seeking adolescent females with a history of child sexual abuse (CSA) completed a trauma history interview, the Child PTSD Symptom Scale – Interview, and the Child Behavior Checklist – Youth Self-Report.

RESULTS

PTSD symptom severity was significantly related to poorer social competence, but was not significantly related to self-reported academic performance. The Avoidance subscale was significantly related to social functioning, whereas the Arousal and Re-experiencing subscales were not.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that symptoms of PTSD, and avoidance symptoms in particular, are related to decreased social functioning but not academic functioning in adolescent victims of CSA. These results are consistent with findings that PTSD is a risk factor for relationship problems in adults (e.g., McFarlane & Bookless, 2001; Riggs, Byrne, Weathers, & Litz, 1998) and suggest that the onset of social impairment may be as young as adolescence.

A history of low birth weight alters recovery following a future head injury: a case series

OBJECTIVE

Low birth weight (LBW; below 2500 grams) is a general risk factor for a variety of neurodevelopmental difficulties. However, these children may remain more vulnerable to neurologic and environmental insults occurring years later. This prospective case series reports on children who sustained a mild, moderate, or severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) in middle childhood but who had also been born with birth weights below 2500 grams.

PARTICIPANTS

PARTICIPANTS were 14 children with mild, moderate, or severe traumatic brain injury (TBI), 5 of whom had birth weights under 2500 grams (LBW) and 9 children with normal birth weight (NBW). All participants were drawn from a larger study on the long-term cognitive and behavioral impact of pediatric TBI and were matched on age, estimated socioeconomic status (SES), and severity of TBI (with NBW children actually having a slightly worse overall injury severity).

RESULTS

At baseline, both groups exhibited similar scores on WJ-R Letter Word Identification and Calculations, Tower of London number solved, and CVLT-C total correct. Baseline group differences were observed on the CELF-III Formulated Sentences (NBW > LBW) and on the VABS Adaptive Behavior Composite and Socialization subdomain (LBW > NBW). Over 2 years, relative to the NBW group, the LBW group evidenced declines on both WJ-R subtests, CVLT-C total correct, CELF-III Formulated Sentences, and VABS Adaptive Behavior Composite and Socialization.

CONCLUSIONS

Although preliminary in nature due to small sample size, findings suggest a history of LBW influences the recovery trajectory following childhood TBI. Academic and adaptive functioning and verbal memory appeared particularly affected.