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Rantanen NK, Reunamo A, Kjellberg MA, Rumbin O, Truu J, Kiljunen H, Niemikoski H, Lastumäki A, Lehtonen KK, Vanninen P. Transformation of phenylarsenic chemical warfare agents and their effect on bacterial communities in Baltic Sea sediment. J Hazard Mater 2024; 464:132935. [PMID: 37976852 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Revised: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/03/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
During the World Wars large quantities of phenylarsenic chemical warfare agents (CWAs) were dumped in the Baltic Sea. Many transformation products of these chemicals have been identified, but the pathways that produce the found chemicals has not been investigated. Here we studied the biotic and abiotic transformation of phenylarsenic CWAs under oxic and anoxic conditions and investigated how the sediment bacterial communities are affected by CWA exposure. By chemical analysis we were able to identify seventeen CWA-related phenylarsenicals, four of which (methylphenylarsinic acid (MPAA), phenylthioarsinic acid (PTAA), phenyldithioarsinic acid (PDTAA) and diphenyldithioarsinic acid (DPDTAA)) have not been reported for marine sediments before. For the first time PTAA was verified from environmental samples. We also observed equilibrium reactions between the found transformation products, which may explain the occurrence of the chemicals. 16S rRNA-analysis showed that bacterial communities in sediments are affected by exposure to phenylarsenic CWAs. We observed increases in the amounts of arsenic-resistant and sulphur-metabolising bacteria. Different transformation products were found in biotic and abiotic samples, which suggests that bacteria participate in the transformation of phenylarsenic CWAs. We propose that methylated phenylarsenicals are produced in microbial metabolism and that chemical reactions with microbially produced sulphur species form sulphur-containing transformation products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noora-Kaisa Rantanen
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention VERIFIN, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, A.I. Virtasen aukio 1, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Anna Reunamo
- Finnish Environment Institute Syke, Marine and Freshwater Solutions Unit, Agnes Sjöbergin katu 2, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Matti A Kjellberg
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention VERIFIN, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, A.I. Virtasen aukio 1, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Olga Rumbin
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention VERIFIN, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, A.I. Virtasen aukio 1, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jaak Truu
- Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Tartu, Riia 23, 51010 Tartu, Estonia
| | - Harri Kiljunen
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention VERIFIN, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, A.I. Virtasen aukio 1, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Hanna Niemikoski
- Finnish Environment Institute Syke, Laboratory Centre, Mustialankatu 3, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Anu Lastumäki
- Finnish Environment Institute Syke, Marine and Freshwater Solutions Unit, Agnes Sjöbergin katu 2, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kari K Lehtonen
- Finnish Environment Institute Syke, Marine and Freshwater Solutions Unit, Agnes Sjöbergin katu 2, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Paula Vanninen
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention VERIFIN, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, A.I. Virtasen aukio 1, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
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Wilczynski W, Brzeziński T, Maszczyk P, Ludew A, Czub MJ, Dziedzic D, Nawala J, Popiel S, Beldowski J, Sanderson H, Radlinska M. Acute toxicity of organoarsenic chemical warfare agents to Danio rerio embryos. Ecotoxicol Environ Saf 2023; 262:115116. [PMID: 37315364 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
During the 20th century, thousands of tons of munitions containing organoarsenic chemical warfare agents (CWAs) were dumped into oceans, seas and inland waters around the world. As a result, organoarsenic CWAs continue to leak from corroding munitions into sediments and their environmental concentrations are expected to peak over the next few decades. There remains, however, a lack of knowledge about their potential toxicity to aquatic vertebrates, such as fish. The aim of this study was to fill in this gap in research, by investigating the acute toxicity of organoarsenic CWAs on fish embryos, using the model species, Danio rerio. To estimate the acute toxicity thresholds of organoarsenic CWAs (Clark I, Adamsite, PDCA), a CWA-related compound (TPA), as well as four organoarsenic CWA degradation products (Clark I[ox], Adamsite[ox], PDCA[ox], TPA[ox]), standardized tests were performed following the OECD no. 236 Fish Embryo Acute Toxicity Test guidelines. Additionally, the detoxification response in D. rerio embryos was investigated by analysing the mRNA expression of five genes encoding antioxidant enzymes (CAT, SOD, GPx, GR and GST). During the 96 h of exposure, organoarsenic CWAs induced lethal effects in D. rerio embryos at very low concentrations (classified as 1st category pollutants according to GHS categorization), and were therefore deemed to be serious environmental hazards. Although TPA and the four CWA degradation products caused no acute toxicity even at their maximum solubility, the transcription of antioxidant-related genes was altered upon exposure to these compounds, indicating the need for further testing for chronic toxicity. Incorporating the results of this study into ecological risk assessments will provide a more accurate prediction of the environmental hazards posed by CWA-related organoarsenicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wojciech Wilczynski
- Department of Environmental Microbiology and Biotechnology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Poland; Department of Hydrobiology, Institute of Functional Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Tomasz Brzeziński
- Department of Hydrobiology, Institute of Functional Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Poland
| | - Piotr Maszczyk
- Department of Hydrobiology, Institute of Functional Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Poland
| | | | - Michał J Czub
- Department of Hydrobiology, Institute of Functional Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Poland; Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Poland; Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Daniel Dziedzic
- Faculty of Advanced Technologies and Chemistry, Military University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Jakub Nawala
- Faculty of Advanced Technologies and Chemistry, Military University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Stanislaw Popiel
- Faculty of Advanced Technologies and Chemistry, Military University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
| | | | - Hans Sanderson
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Monika Radlinska
- Department of Environmental Microbiology and Biotechnology, Institute of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Poland
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Czub M, Nawała J, Popiel S, Brzeziński T, Maszczyk P, Sanderson H, Maser E, Gordon D, Dziedzic D, Dawidziuk B, Pijanowska J, Fabisiak J, Szubska M, Lang T, Vanninen P, Niemikoski H, Missiaen T, Lehtonen KK, Bełdowski J, Kotwicki L. Acute aquatic toxicity of arsenic-based chemical warfare agents to Daphnia magna. Aquat Toxicol 2021; 230:105693. [PMID: 33310671 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2020.105693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2020] [Revised: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/15/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Sea dumping of chemical warfare (CW) took place worldwide during the 20th century. Submerged CW included metal bombs and casings that have been exposed for 50-100 years of corrosion and are now known to be leaking. Therefore, the arsenic-based chemical warfare agents (CWAs), pose a potential threat to the marine ecosystems. The aim of this research was to support a need for real-data measurements for accurate risk assessments and categorization of threats originating from submerged CWAs. This has been achieved by providing a broad insight into arsenic-based CWAs acute toxicity in aquatic ecosystems. Standard tests were performed to provide a solid foundation for acute aquatic toxicity threshold estimations of CWA: Lewisite, Adamsite, Clark I, phenyldichloroarsine (PDCA), CWA-related compounds: TPA, arsenic trichloride and four arsenic-based CWA degradation products. Despite their low solubility, during the 48 h exposure, all CWA caused highly negative effects on Daphnia magna. PDCA was very toxic with 48 h D. magna LC50 at 0.36 μg × L-1 and Lewisite with EC50 at 3.2 μg × L-1. Concentrations at which no immobilization effects were observed were slightly above the analytical Limits of Detection (LOD) and Quantification (LOQ). More water-soluble CWA degradation products showed no effects at concentrations up to 100 mg × L-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michał Czub
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sopot, Poland.
| | - Jakub Nawała
- Military University of Technology in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
| | | | - Tomasz Brzeziński
- Department of Hydrobiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Piotr Maszczyk
- Department of Hydrobiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Hans Sanderson
- Aarhus University, Department of Environmental Science, Roskilde, Denmark.
| | - Edmund Maser
- Institute of Toxicology and Pharmacology, Kiel University, Kiel, Germany.
| | - Diana Gordon
- Military University of Technology in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Daniel Dziedzic
- Military University of Technology in Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
| | | | - Joanna Pijanowska
- Department of Hydrobiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
| | | | - Marta Szubska
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sopot, Poland.
| | - Thomas Lang
- Thünen Institute of Fisheries Ecology, Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | - Paula Vanninen
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Hanna Niemikoski
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
| | | | | | - Jacek Bełdowski
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sopot, Poland.
| | - Lech Kotwicki
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Sopot, Poland.
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Brzeziński T, Czub M, Nawała J, Gordon D, Dziedzic D, Dawidziuk B, Popiel S, Maszczyk P. The effects of chemical warfare agent Clark I on the life histories and stable isotopes composition of Daphnia magna. Environ Pollut 2020; 266:115142. [PMID: 32750525 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Revised: 06/07/2020] [Accepted: 06/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Chemical warfare agents (CWA) dumped worldwide in all types of aquatic reservoirs pose a potential environmental hazard. Leakage of CWAs from eroding containers at dumping sites had been observed, and their presence in the tissues of aquatic animals was confirmed. However, the ecological effects of CWA have not yet been studied. In standardized laboratory bioassays, we tested if sublethal concentration of Clark I, an arsenic based CWA, can affect life histories (somatic growth rate, fecundity, size at maturity), population growth rate and stable isotope signatures of a keystone crustacean grazer Daphnia magna. We found that the life histories and fitness of daphnids reared in the presence of Clark I differed from those reared in Clark-free conditions. The effects were observed when Clark I concentrations were no less than 5 μg×L-1. With increasing concentrations of the tested CWA, all of the tested parameters decreased linearly. The finding indicates that even sublethal concentrations of Clark I can affect crustacean populations, which should be taken into account when assessing the environmental risks of this particular CWA. We found intraspecific diversity in susceptibility to Clark I, with some clones being significantly less vulnerable than others. We also found that in the presence of Clark I, the ratio of heavy and light isotopes of nitrogen in the bodies of daphnids was affected - daphnids exhibited δ15N enrichment with increasing concentrations of this CWA. The isotopic composition of carbon was not affected by the presence of Clark I. The nitrogen isotopic signature may be used as an indicator of stress in zooplankton exposed to the presence of toxic xenobiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz Brzeziński
- Department of Hydrobiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Żwirki i Wigury 101, 02-089, Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Michał Czub
- Institute of Oceanology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Powstańców Warszawy 55, 81-712, Sopot, Poland
| | - Jakub Nawała
- Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Advanced Technologies and Chemistry, Military University of Technology, Gen. W. Urbanowicza 2, 00-908, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Diana Gordon
- Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Advanced Technologies and Chemistry, Military University of Technology, Gen. W. Urbanowicza 2, 00-908, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Daniel Dziedzic
- Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Advanced Technologies and Chemistry, Military University of Technology, Gen. W. Urbanowicza 2, 00-908, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Barbara Dawidziuk
- Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Advanced Technologies and Chemistry, Military University of Technology, Gen. W. Urbanowicza 2, 00-908, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Stanisław Popiel
- Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Advanced Technologies and Chemistry, Military University of Technology, Gen. W. Urbanowicza 2, 00-908, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Piotr Maszczyk
- Department of Hydrobiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Żwirki i Wigury 101, 02-089, Warsaw, Poland
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Höher N, Turja R, Brenner M, Nyholm JR, Östin A, Leffler P, Butrimavičienė L, Baršienė J, Halme M, Karjalainen M, Niemikoski H, Vanninen P, Broeg K, Lehtonen KK, Berglind R. Toxic effects of chemical warfare agent mixtures on the mussel Mytilus trossulus in the Baltic Sea: A laboratory exposure study. Mar Environ Res 2019; 145:112-122. [PMID: 30850117 DOI: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2019.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2018] [Revised: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 02/01/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Baltic blue mussels (Mytilus trossulus) were implemented to assess potential toxicity, health impairments and bioaccumulation of dumped chemical warfare agents on marine benthic organisms. Mussels were collected from a pristine cultivation side and exposed under laboratory conditions to different mixtures of chemical warfare agents (CWAs) related phenyl arsenic compounds, Clark I and Adamsite as well as chloroacetophenone. Using a multi-biomarker approach, mussels were assessed thereafter for effects at different organisational levels ranging from geno-to cytotoxic effects, differences in enzyme kinetics and immunological responses. In an integrated approach, chemical analysis of water and tissue of the test organisms was performed in parallel. The results show clearly that exposed mussels bioaccumulate the oxidized forms of chemical warfare agents Clark I, Adamsite (DAox and DMox) and, to a certain extent, also chloroacetophenone into their tissues. Adverse effects in the test organisms at subcellular and functional level, including cytotoxic, immunotoxic and oxidative stress effects were visible. These acute effects occurred even at the lowest test concentration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole Höher
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Raisa Turja
- Marine Research Centre, Finnish Environment Institute, Agnes Sjöbergin Katu 2, 00790, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Matthias Brenner
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany.
| | | | - Anders Östin
- Swedish Defence Research Agency, Cementvägen 20, 90182, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Per Leffler
- Swedish Defence Research Agency, Cementvägen 20, 90182, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Laura Butrimavičienė
- Institute of Ecology of Nature Research Centre, Akademijos Str. 2, 08412, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Janina Baršienė
- Institute of Ecology of Nature Research Centre, Akademijos Str. 2, 08412, Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Mia Halme
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention (VERIFIN), Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, Yliopistonkatu 4, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Maaret Karjalainen
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention (VERIFIN), Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, Yliopistonkatu 4, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Hanna Niemikoski
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention (VERIFIN), Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, Yliopistonkatu 4, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Paula Vanninen
- Finnish Institute for Verification of the Chemical Weapons Convention (VERIFIN), Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Helsinki, Yliopistonkatu 4, 00014, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Katja Broeg
- Alfred Wegener Institute Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570, Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Kari K Lehtonen
- Marine Research Centre, Finnish Environment Institute, Agnes Sjöbergin Katu 2, 00790, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Rune Berglind
- Swedish Defence Research Agency, Cementvägen 20, 90182, Umeå, Sweden
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