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Pretorius D, Richter RP, Anand T, Cardenas JC, Richter JR. Alterations in heparan sulfate proteoglycan synthesis and sulfation and the impact on vascular endothelial function. Matrix Biol Plus 2022; 16:100121. [PMID: 36160687 PMCID: PMC9494232 DOI: 10.1016/j.mbplus.2022.100121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Apical surface heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPG) have unique endothelial roles. Inflammation and shear stress derangement can alter HSPG synthesis and sulfation. Reduced HSPG expression impacts mechanisms that regulate endothelial cell homeostasis. Changes to endothelial glycocalyx HSPG sulfation are vast and contextually dependent. Targeting endothelial HSPG biosynthesis and sulfation are promising therapeutic strategies.
The glycocalyx attached to the apical surface of vascular endothelial cells is a rich network of proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans, and glycoproteins with instrumental roles in vascular homeostasis. Given their molecular complexity and ability to interact with the intra- and extracellular environment, heparan sulfate proteoglycans uniquely contribute to the glycocalyx’s role in regulating endothelial permeability, mechanosignaling, and ligand recognition by cognate cell surface receptors. Much attention has recently been devoted to the enzymatic shedding of heparan sulfate proteoglycans from the endothelial glycocalyx and its impact on vascular function. However, other molecular modifications to heparan sulfate proteoglycans are possible and may have equal or complementary clinical significance. In this narrative review, we focus on putative mechanisms driving non-proteolytic changes in heparan sulfate proteoglycan expression and alterations in the sulfation of heparan sulfate side chains within the endothelial glycocalyx. We then discuss how these specific changes to the endothelial glycocalyx impact endothelial cell function and highlight therapeutic strategies to target or potentially reverse these pathologic changes.
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Key Words
- ACE2, Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2
- CLP, cecal ligation and puncture
- COVID-19, Coronavirus disease 2019
- EXT, Exostosin
- EXTL, Exostosin-like glycosyltransferase
- FFP, Fresh frozen plasma
- FGF, Fibroblast growth factor
- FGFR1, Fibroblast growth factor receptor 1
- GAG, Glycosaminoglycan
- GPC, Glypican
- Gal, Galactose
- GlcA, Glucuronic acid
- GlcNAc, N-actetyl glucosamine
- Glycocalyx
- HLMVEC, Human lung microvascular endothelial cell
- HS, Heparan sulfate
- HS2ST, Heparan sulfate 2-O-sulfotransferase
- HS3ST, Heparan sulfate 3-O-sulfotransferase
- HS6ST, Heparan sulfate 6-O-sulfotransferase
- HSPG, Heparan sulfate proteoglycan
- HUVEC, Human umbilical vein endothelial cell
- Heparan sulfate proteoglycan
- LPS, lipopolysaccharide
- NDST, N-deacetylase/N-sulfotransferase
- SARS-CoV-2, Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2
- SDC, Syndecan
- Sulf, Endosulfatase
- Sulfation
- Synthesis
- TNFα, Tumor necrosis factor alpha
- UA, Hexuronic acid
- VEGF, Vascular endothelial growth factor
- Vascular endothelium
- XYLT, Xylosyltransferase
- Xyl, Xylose
- eGCX, Endothelial glycocalyx
- eNOS, Endothelial nitric oxide synthase
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle Pretorius
- Division of Trauma & Acute Care Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Robert P Richter
- Division of Pediatric Critical Care Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States.,Center for Injury Science, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Tanya Anand
- Division of Trauma, Critical Care, Burn & Emergency Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Jessica C Cardenas
- Division of Acute Care Surgery, Department of Surgery, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, United States.,Center for Translational Injury Research, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Jillian R Richter
- Division of Trauma & Acute Care Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States.,Center for Injury Science, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
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Lehmann RJ, Jolly LA, Johnson BV, Lord MS, Kim HN, Saville JT, Fuller M, Byers S, Derrick-Roberts AL. Impaired neural differentiation of MPS IIIA patient induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neural progenitor cells. Mol Genet Metab Rep 2021; 29:100811. [PMID: 34712574 PMCID: PMC8531667 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymgmr.2021.100811] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Mucopolysaccharidosis type IIIA (MPS IIIA) is characterised by a progressive neurological decline leading to early death. It is caused by bi-allelic loss-of-function mutations in SGSH encoding sulphamidase, a lysosomal enzyme required for heparan sulphate glycosaminoglycan (HS GAG) degradation, that results in the progressive build-up of HS GAGs in multiple tissues most notably the central nervous system (CNS). Skin fibroblasts from two MPS IIIA patients who presented with an intermediate and a severe clinical phenotype, respectively, were reprogrammed into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). The intermediate MPS IIIA iPSCs were then differentiated into neural progenitor cells (NPCs) and subsequently neurons. The patient derived fibroblasts, iPSCs, NPCs and neurons all displayed hallmark biochemical characteristics of MPS IIIA including reduced sulphamidase activity and increased accumulation of an MPS IIIA HS GAG biomarker. Proliferation of MPS IIIA iPSC-derived NPCs was reduced compared to control, but could be partially rescued by reintroducing functional sulphamidase enzyme, or by doubling the concentration of the mitogen fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2). Whilst both control heparin, and MPS IIIA HS GAGs had a similar binding affinity for FGF2, only the latter inhibited FGF signalling, suggesting accumulated MPS IIIA HS GAGs disrupt the FGF2:FGF2 receptor:HS signalling complex. Neuronal differentiation of MPS IIIA iPSC-derived NPCs was associated with a reduction in the expression of neuronal cell marker genes βIII-TUBULIN, NF-H and NSE, revealing reduced neurogenesis compared to control. A similar result was achieved by adding MPS IIIA HS GAGs to the culture medium during neuronal differentiation of control iPSC-derived NPCs. This study demonstrates the generation of MPS IIIA iPSCs, and NPCs, the latter of which display reduced proliferation and neurogenic capacity. Reduced NPC proliferation can be explained by a model in which soluble MPS IIIA HS GAGs compete with cell surface HS for FGF2 binding. The mechanism driving reduced neurogenesis remains to be determined but appears downstream of MPS IIIA HS GAG accumulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca J. Lehmann
- Genetics and Molecular Pathology, SA Pathology (at the Women's and Children's Hospital), 72 King William Rd, North Adelaide, SA 5006, Australia
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| | - Lachlan A. Jolly
- Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
- Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| | - Brett V. Johnson
- Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
- Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| | - Megan S. Lord
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, UNSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Ha Na Kim
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, UNSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Jennifer T. Saville
- Genetics and Molecular Pathology, SA Pathology (at the Women's and Children's Hospital), 72 King William Rd, North Adelaide, SA 5006, Australia
| | - Maria Fuller
- Genetics and Molecular Pathology, SA Pathology (at the Women's and Children's Hospital), 72 King William Rd, North Adelaide, SA 5006, Australia
- Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
- Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| | - Sharon Byers
- Genetics and Molecular Pathology, SA Pathology (at the Women's and Children's Hospital), 72 King William Rd, North Adelaide, SA 5006, Australia
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
- Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| | - Ainslie L.K. Derrick-Roberts
- Genetics and Molecular Pathology, SA Pathology (at the Women's and Children's Hospital), 72 King William Rd, North Adelaide, SA 5006, Australia
- Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
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Ullah TR. The role of CXCR4 in multiple myeloma: Cells' journey from bone marrow to beyond. J Bone Oncol 2019; 17:100253. [PMID: 31372333 PMCID: PMC6658931 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbo.2019.100253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Revised: 07/15/2019] [Accepted: 07/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
CXCR4 is a pleiotropic chemokine receptor which acts through its ligand CXCL12 to regulate diverse physiological processes. CXCR4/CXCL12 axis plays a pivotal role in proliferation, invasion, dissemination and drug resistance in multiple myeloma (MM). Apart from its role in homing, CXCR4 also affects MM cell mobilization and egression out of the bone marrow (BM) which is correlated with distant organ metastasis. Aberrant CXCR4 expression pattern is associated with osteoclastogenesis and tumor growth in MM through its cross talk with various important cell signalling pathways. A deeper insight into understanding of CXCR4 mediated signalling pathways and its role in MM is essential to identify potential therapeutic interventions. The current therapeutic focus is on disrupting the interaction of MM cells with its protective tumor microenvironment where CXCR4 axis plays an essential role. There are still multiple challenges that need to be overcome to target CXCR4 axis more efficiently and to identify novel combination therapies with existing strategies. This review highlights the role of CXCR4 along with its significant interacting partners as a mediator of MM pathogenesis and summarizes the targeted therapies carried out so far.
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Key Words
- AMC, Angiogenic monomuclear cells
- BM, Bone marrow
- BMSC, Bone marrow stromal cells
- CAM-DR, Cell adhesion‐mediated drug resistance
- CCR–CC, Chemokine receptor
- CCX–CKR, Chemo Centryx–chemokine receptor
- CD4, Cluster of differentiation 4
- CL—CC, Chemokine ligand
- CNS, Central nervous system
- CSCs, Cancer stem cells
- CTAP-III, Connective tissue-activating peptide-III
- CXCL, CXC chemokine ligand
- CXCR, CXC chemokine receptor
- EGF, Epidermal growth factor
- EMD, Extramedullary disease
- EPC, Endothelial progenitor cells
- EPI, Endogenous peptide inhibitor
- ERK, Extracellular signal related kinase
- FGF, Fibroblast growth factor
- G-CSF, Granulocyte colony-stimulating factor
- GPCRs, G protein-coupled chemokine receptors
- HCC, Hepatocellular carcinoma
- HD, Hodgkin's disease
- HGF, Hepatocyte growth factor
- HIF1α, Hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha
- HIV, Human Immunodeficiency Virus
- HMGB1, High Mobility Group Box 1
- HPV, Human papillomavirus
- HSC, Hematopoietic stem cells
- IGF, Insulin-like growth factor
- JAK/STAT, Janus Kinase signal transducer and activator of transcription
- JAM-A, Junctional adhesion molecule-A
- JNK, Jun N-terminal kinase
- MAPK, Mitogen Activated Protein Kinase
- MIF, Macrophage migration inhibitory factor
- MM, Multiple myeloma
- MMP, Matrix metalloproteinases
- MRD, Minimal residual disease
- NHL, Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma
- OCL, Octeoclast
- OPG, Osteoprotegerin
- PI3K, phosphoinositide-3 kinase
- PKA, protein kinase A
- PKC, Protein kinase C
- PLC, Phospholipase C
- Pim, Proviral Integrations of Moloney virus
- RANKL, Receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-Β ligand
- RRMM, Relapsed/refractory multiple myeloma
- SFM-DR, Soluble factor mediated drug resistance
- VEGF, Vascular endothelial growth factor
- VHL, Von Hippel-Lindau
- WHIM, Warts, Hypogammaglobulinemia, Infections, and Myelokathexis
- WM, Waldenström macroglobulinemia
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Emon B, Bauer J, Jain Y, Jung B, Saif T. Biophysics of Tumor Microenvironment and Cancer Metastasis - A Mini Review. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2018; 16:279-287. [PMID: 30128085 PMCID: PMC6097544 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2018.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2018] [Revised: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/21/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The role of tumor microenvironment in cancer progression is gaining significant attention. It is realized that cancer cells and the corresponding stroma co-evolve with time. Cancer cells recruit and transform the stromal cells, which in turn remodel the extra cellular matrix of the stroma. This complex interaction between the stroma and the cancer cells results in a dynamic feed-forward/feed-back loop with biochemical and biophysical cues that assist metastatic transition of the cancer cells. Although biochemistry has long been studied for the understanding of cancer progression, biophysical signaling is emerging as a critical paradigm determining cancer metastasis. In this mini review, we discuss the role of one of the biophysical cues, mostly the mechanical stiffness of tumor microenvironment, in cancer progression and its clinical implications.
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Key Words
- ADAMs, Adamalysins
- ANGPT2, Angiopoietin 2
- Activin/TGFβ
- CAF, Cancer associated fibroblast
- CSF-1, Colony stimulating factor 1
- CTGF, Connective tissue growth factor
- CYR61/CCN1, Cysteine-rich angiogenic inducer 61/CCN family member 1
- Cancer
- ECM stiffness
- ECM, Extracellular matrix
- EGF, Epidermal growth factor
- EMT, Epithelial to mesenchymal transition
- FGF, Fibroblast growth factor
- Growth factors
- HGF/SF, Hepatocyte growth factor/Scatter factor
- IGFs, Insulin-like growth factors
- IL-13, Interleukin-13
- IL-33, Interleukin-33
- IL-6, Interleukin-6
- KGF, Keratinocyte growth factor, also FGF7
- LOX, Lysyl Oxidase
- MMPs, Matrix metalloproteinases
- Metastasis
- NO, Nitric oxide
- SDF-1/CXCL12, Stromal cell-derived factor 1/C-X-C motif chemokine 12
- TACs, Tumor-associated collagen signatures
- TGFβ, Transforming growth factor β
- TNF-α, Tumor necrosis factor-α
- Tumor biophysics
- VEGF, Vascular endothelial growth factor
- α-SMA, α-Smooth muscle actin
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Affiliation(s)
- Bashar Emon
- Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States
| | - Jessica Bauer
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, United States
| | - Yasna Jain
- Department of Architecture, BRAC University, Dhaka
| | - Barbara Jung
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, United States
| | - Taher Saif
- Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States
- Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, United States
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Nomura Y, Fukui C, Morishita Y, Haishima Y. A biological study establishing the endotoxin limit for osteoblast and adipocyte differentiation of human mesenchymal stem cells. Regen Ther 2018; 8:46-57. [PMID: 30271865 PMCID: PMC6149188 DOI: 10.1016/j.reth.2018.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2017] [Revised: 12/25/2017] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Multipotent mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are widespread in adult organisms and are implicated in tissue maintenance and repair, regulation of hematopoiesis, and immunologic responses. Human (h)MSCs have applications in tissue engineering, cell-based therapy, and medical devices but it is unclear how they respond to unfavorable conditions, such as hypoxia or inflammation after transplantation in vivo. Although endotoxin testing is required for evaluating the quality and safety of transplanted MSCs, no reports on their dose response to endotoxins are available to establish the limits for in vitro MSC culture systems. In the present study, we aimed to accurately quantify the risk of endotoxin contamination in cell culture systems to establish an acceptable endotoxin limit for the differentiation of hMSC osteoblasts and adipocytes. METHODS Three types of bone marrow-derived hMSCs (hMSC-1: 21-year-old, M/B; hMSC-2: 36-year-old, M/B; hMSC-3: 43-year-old, M/C) and adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs; StemPro Human) were cultured in osteogenic or adipogenic differentiation media, respectively, from commercial kits, containing various concentrations of endotoxin (0.01-100 ng/ml). The degree of adipocyte and osteoblast differentiation was estimated by fluorescent staining of lipid droplets and hydroxyapatite, respectively. To clarify the molecular mechanism underlying the effect of endotoxin on hMSC differentiation, cellular proteins were extracted from cultured cells and subjected to liquid chromatograph-tandem mass spectrometry shotgun proteomics analysis. RESULTS Although endotoxin did not effect the adipocyte differentiation of hMSCs, osteoblast differentiation was enhanced by various endotoxin concentrations: over 1 ng/ml, for hMSC-1; 10 ng/ml, for hMSC-2; and 100 ng/ml, for hMSC-3. Proteomic analysis of hMSC-1 cells revealed up-regulation of many proteins related to bone formation. These results suggested that endotoxin enhances the osteoblast differentiation of MSCs depending on the cell type. CONCLUSIONS Since endotoxins can affect various cellular functions, an endotoxin limit should be established for in vitro MSC cultures. Its no-observed-adverse-effect level was 0.1 ng/ml based on the effect on the hMSC osteoblast differentiation, but it may not necessarily be the limit for ADSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Yuji Haishima
- Division of Medical Devices, National Institute of Health Sciences, 1-18-1 Kamiyoga, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo 158-8501, Japan
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Braccia C, Espinal MP, Pini M, De Pietri Tonelli D, Armirotti A. A new SWATH ion library for mouse adult hippocampal neural stem cells. Data Brief 2018; 18:1-8. [PMID: 29896482 PMCID: PMC5995750 DOI: 10.1016/j.dib.2018.02.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2017] [Revised: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the last years, the SWATH data-independent acquisition protocol (Sequential Window acquisition of All THeoretical mass spectra) has become a cornerstone for the worldwide proteomics community (Collins et al., 2017) [1]. In this approach, a high-resolution quadrupole-ToF mass spectrometer acquires thousands of MS/MS data by selecting not just a single precursor at a time, but by allowing a broad m/z range to be fragmented. This acquisition window is then sequentially moved from the lowest to the highest mass selection range. This technique enables the acquisition of thousands of high-resolution MS/MS spectra per minute in a standard LC–MS run. In the subsequent data analysis phase, the corresponding dataset is searched in a “triple quadrupole-like” mode, thus not considering the whole MS/MS scan spectrum, but by searching for several precursor to fragment transitions that identify and quantify the corresponding peptide. This search is made possible with the use of an ion library, previously acquired in a classical data dependent, full-spectrum mode (Fabre et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2017) [2], [3]. The SWATH protocol, combining the protein identification power of high-resolution MS/MS spectra with the robustness and accuracy in analyte quantification of triple-quad targeted workflows, has become very popular in proteomics research. The major drawback lies in the ion library itself, which is normally demanding and time-consuming to build. Conversely, through the realignment of chromatographic retention times, an ion library of a given proteome can relatively easily be tailored upon “any” proteomics experiment done on the same proteome. We are thus hereby sharing with the worldwide proteomics community our newly acquired ion library of mouse adult hippocampal neural stem cells. Given the growing effort in neuroscience research involving proteomics experiments (Pons-Espinal et al., 2017; Sarnyai and Guest, 2017; Sethi et al., 2015; Bramini et al., 2016) [4,[5], [6], [7], we believe that this data might be of great help for the neuroscience community. All the here reported data (RAW files, results and ion library) can be freely downloaded from the SWATHATLAS (Deutsch et al., 2008) [8] website (http://www.peptideatlas.org/PASS/PASS01110)
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Key Words
- ACN, Acetonitrile
- DDA, Data dependent acquisition
- DTT, Dithiothreitol
- EGF, Epidermal growth factor
- FA, Formic acid
- FGF, Fibroblast growth factor
- IAA, Iodoacetamide
- Neural stem cells
- Neuroscience
- PDL, Poly-D-Lysine
- PSM, Peptide spectrum match
- PTMs, Post translational modifications
- Proteomics
- SWATH
- TEA, Triethylamine
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarissa Braccia
- D3 PharmaChemistry, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30, 16163 Genova, Italy
| | - Meritxell Pons Espinal
- Neurobiology of miRNA Lab, Neuroscience and Brain Technologies Department, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30, 16163 Genova, Italy
| | - Mattia Pini
- D3 PharmaChemistry, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30, 16163 Genova, Italy
| | - Davide De Pietri Tonelli
- Neurobiology of miRNA Lab, Neuroscience and Brain Technologies Department, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30, 16163 Genova, Italy
| | - Andrea Armirotti
- D3 PharmaChemistry, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Via Morego 30, 16163 Genova, Italy
- Corresponding author.
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Abstract
There is increasing evidence that in addition to having major roles in morphogenesis, in some tissues Eph receptor and ephrin signaling regulates the differentiation of cells. In one mode of deployment, cell contact dependent Eph-ephrin activation induces a distinct fate of cells at the interface of their expression domains, for example in early ascidian embryos and in the vertebrate hindbrain. In another mode, overlapping Eph receptor and ephrin expression underlies activation within a cell population, which promotes or inhibits cell differentiation in bone remodelling, neural progenitors and keratinocytes. Eph-ephrin activation also contributes to formation of the appropriate number of progenitor cells by increasing or decreasing cell proliferation. These multiple roles of Eph receptor and ephrin signaling may enable a coupling between morphogenesis and the differentiation and proliferation of cells.
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Key Words
- Eph receptor
- Eph receptor, Erythropoietin-producing hepatocellular carcinoma cell receptor
- FGF, Fibroblast growth factor
- IGF-1, Insulin-like growth factor-1
- JNK, c-Jun N-terminal kinase
- MAPK, Mitogen activated protein kinase
- NFAT, Nuclear factor of activated T-cells
- RGS3, Regulator of G-protein signaling 3
- STAT3, Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3
- TAZ, Tafazzin
- TCR, T cell receptor
- TEC, Thymic epithelial cell
- TGF, Transforming growth factor
- ZHX2, Zinc fingers and homeoboxes 2
- ascidian development
- bone
- cell proliferation
- differentiation
- ephrin
- ephrin, Eph receptor interacting protein
- hindbrain
- keratinocytes
- neural progenitors
- p120GAP, GTPase activating protein
- thymocytes
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Affiliation(s)
- David G Wilkinson
- a Division of Developmental Neurobiology; MRC National Institute for Medical Research ; London , UK
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