Bif‑1 inhibits activation of inflammasome through autophagy regulatory mechanism

Inflammasome activation is a crucial mechanism in inflammatory responses. Bax‑interacting factor 1 (Bif‑1) is required for the normal formation of autophagosomes, but its ability to exert an inflammatory regulatory effect remains unclear. The aim of the present study was to explore the role of Bif‑1 in inflammation, possibly mediated through autophagy regulation. Using a lipopolysaccharide (LPS)/adenosine triphosphate (ATP)‑induced inflammatory model in J774A.1 cells, the effect of Bif‑1 on inflammasome activation and the underlying mechanisms involving autophagy regulation were investigated. Elevated levels of NLR family pyrin domain containing protein 3 inflammasome and interleukin‑1β (IL‑1β) proteins were observed in J774A.1 cells after LPS/ATP induction. Furthermore, Bif‑1 and autophagy activity were significantly upregulated in inflammatory cells. Inhibition of autophagy resulted in inflammasome activation. Silencing Bif‑1 expression significantly upregulated IL‑1β levels and inhibited autophagy activity, suggesting a potential anti‑inflammatory role of Bif‑1 mediated by autophagy. Additionally, inhibition of the nuclear factor‑κB (NF‑κB) signaling pathway downregulated Bif‑1 and inhibited autophagy activity, highlighting the importance of NF‑κB in the regulation of Bif‑1 and autophagy. In summary, the current study revealed that Bif‑1 is a critical anti‑inflammatory factor against inflammasome activation mediated by a mechanism of autophagy regulation, indicating its potential as a therapeutic target for inflammatory regulation.

[Retracted] Shengxian decoction decreases doxorubicin‑induced cardiac apoptosis by regulating the TREM1/NF‑κB signaling pathway

Following the publication of this paper, it was drawn to the Editor's attention by a concerned reader that the majority of the Histone H3 control western blotting data featured in Figs. 2D and 4C were strikingly similar to data appearing in different form in other articles written by different authors at different research institutes. Owing to the fact that the contentious data in the above article had already been published elsewhere prior to its submission to Molecular Medicine Reports, the Editor has decided that this paper should be retracted from the Journal. The authors were asked for an explanation to account for these concerns, but the Editorial Office did not receive a reply. The Editor apologizes to the readership for any inconvenience caused. [Molecular Medicine Reports 23: 219, 2021; DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2021.11858].

TIFA contributes to periodontitis in diabetic mice via activating the NF‑κB signaling pathway

Diabetic periodontitis (DP) refers to destruction of periodontal tissue and absorption of bone tissue in diabetic patients. Tumor necrosis factor receptor‑associated factor (TRAF)‑interacting protein with forkhead‑associated domain (TIFA) as a crucial regulator of inflammation activates the NF‑κB signaling pathway to regulate cell biological behavior. However, the function and mechanism of TIFA on DP suffer from a lack of research. In the present study, TIFA was upregulated in the periodontal tissue of a DP mouse model. In addition, the expression of TIFA in RAW264.7 cells was induced by high glucose (HG) culture and increased by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) from Porphyromonas gingivalis treatment in a time‑dependent manner. Knockdown of TIFA significantly reduced the levels of inflammatory cytokines, including TNF‑α, IL‑6, IL‑1β and monocyte chemoattractant protein‑1, in HG and LPS‑induced RAW264.7 cells. The nuclear translocation of NF‑κB p65 was induced by HG and LPS and was clearly suppressed by absence of TIFA. The expression of downstream factors Nod‑like receptor family pyrin domain‑containing 3 and apoptosis‑associated speck‑like protein was inhibited by silencing TIFA. Moreover, TIFA was increased by receptor activator of NF‑κB (RANK) ligand (RANKL) in a concentration dependent manner. The expression of cathepsin K, MMP9 and nuclear factor of activated T cells cytoplasmic 1 was downregulated by depletion of TIFA. RANKL‑induced osteoclast differentiation was inhibited by silencing of TIFA. Meanwhile, the decrease of TIFA blocked activation of the NF‑κB pathway in RANKL‑treated RAW264.7 cells. In conclusion, TIFA as a promoter regulates the inflammation and osteoclast differentiation via activating the NF‑κB signaling pathway.

Neferine exerts anti‑inflammatory activity in BV‑2 microglial cells and protects mice with MPTP‑induced Parkinson's disease by inhibiting NF‑κB activation

Abnormal activation of microglia and the production of proinflammatory cytokines can lead to chronic neuroinflammation, which is an important pathological characteristic of Parkinson's disease (PD). Neferine is a chemical compound extracted from lotus seed which has previously been reported to exert protective effects on the development of several types of cancer, myocardial injury and hypoxic‑ischemic encephalopathy. However, its effect on microglial functions in neuroinflammation remains to be clarified. The present study used network pharmacology and screening in a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) model to demonstrate that neferine suppresses the production of inducible nitric oxide synthase, interleukin‑6 and tumor necrosis factor α in LPS‑treated BV‑2 cells. The working concentration of neferine did not exert cytotoxic effects on BV‑2 cells. Mechanistically, neferine attenuated inflammation by inhibiting the phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of the NF‑κB p65 subunit. In vivo, neferine protected mice from the inflammatory response in the substantia nigra and inhibited the development of nervous disorders in the 1‑methyl‑4‑phenyl‑1,2,3,6‑tetrahydropyridine‑induced PD model. The present study demonstrated that neferine inhibited LPS‑mediated activation of microglia by inhibiting NF‑κB signaling. These findings may provide a new reference for the prevention and future treatment of PD.

IGJ suppresses breast cancer growth and metastasis by inhibiting EMT via the NF‑κB signaling pathway

Breast cancer metastasis is the primary cause of mortality of patients with breast cancer. The present study aimed to explore the role and underlying mechanisms of IGJ in the invasion and metastasis of breast cancer. The Cancer Genome Atlas database was utilized to analyze the differential gene expression profiles in patients with breast cancer with or without metastasis; the target gene, joining chain of multimeric IgA and IgM (JCHAIN, also known as IGJ, as referred to herein), with significant expression and with prognostic value was screened. The expression levels of IGJ in human breast cancer paired tissues and cell lines were detected using reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR and western blot analysis. IGJ differential expression was detected in paired human breast cancer tissues using immunohistochemistry. The role of IGJ in breast cancer was verified using CCK‑8, invasion and migration assays, and scratch tests in vivo and in vitro. Further exploration of the role and mechanism of IGJ in breast cancer was conducted through Gene Set Enrichment Analysis, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analysis, western blot analysis and immunofluorescence experiments. Through the analysis of gene expression profiles, it was found that IGJ was poorly expressed in patients with breast cancer with metastasis compared to patients with non‑metastatic breast cancer. The overexpression of IGJ was associated with an improved distant metastasis‑free survival and overall survival (OS). COX multivariate regression analysis demonstrated that IGJ was an independent prognostic factor for the OS and relapse‑free survival of patients with breast cancer. In comparison to healthy breast cancer adjacent tissues and cell lines, IGJ was poorly expressed in breast cancer tissues and cell lines (P<0.05). Further analyses indicated that the overexpression of IGJ suppressed the proliferation, invasion and metastasis of breast cancer cells in vivo and in vitro by inhibiting the occurrence of epithelial‑to‑mesenchymal transition (EMT) and suppressing the nuclear translocation of p65. Finally, rescue experiments indicated that IGJ restricted the proliferation and metastasis of breast cancer cells by regulating the NF‑κB signaling pathway. On the whole, the present study demonstrates that IGJ suppresses the invasion and metastasis of breast cancer by inhibiting both the occurrence of EMT and the NF‑κB signaling pathway. These findings may provide novel biomarkers and potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of metastatic breast cancer.

Inhibition of MLCK‑mediated migration and invasion in human endometriosis stromal cells by NF‑κB inhibitor DHMEQ

Endometriosis is initiated by the movement of endometrial cells in the uterus to the fallopian tubes, the ovaries and the peritoneal cavity after the shedding of the uterus lining. To cause endometriosis, it is often necessary for these endometrial cells to migrate, invade and grow at the secondary site. In the present study, immortalized human endometriosis stromal cells (HESC) were employed to look for the inhibitors of migration and invasion. Using a chemical library of bioactive metabolites, it was found that an NF‑κB inhibitor, DHMEQ, inhibited the migration and invasion of HESC. Both whole‑genome array and metastasis PCR array analyses suggested the involvement of myosin light chain kinase (MLCK) in the mechanism of inhibition. DHMEQ was confirmed to inhibit the expression of MLCK and small inhibitory RNA knockdown of MLCK reduced cellular migration and invasion. The addition of DHMEQ to the knockdown cells did not further inhibit migration and invasion. DHMEQ is particularly effective in suppressing disease models by intraperitoneal (IP) administration and this therapy is being developed for the treatment of inflammation and cancer. DHMEQ IP therapy may also be useful for the treatment of endometriosis.

The MyD88 inhibitor, ST2825, induces cell cycle arrest and apoptosis by suppressing the activation of the NF‑κB/AKT1/p21 pathway in pancreatic cancer

NF‑κB activation occurs in the majority patients with pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC); however, directly targeting NF‑κB has proven unsuccessful, and recent studies have demonstrated a certain effect of the indirect inhibition of NF‑κB. Myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) is a common intermediate messenger for NF‑κB activation by inducers. In the present study, the level of MyD88 in PDAC was detected using a public database and a tissue chip. A specific inhibitor (ST2825) of MyD88 was used on PDAC cell lines. Flow cytometry was used to examine apoptosis and cell cycle progression. Transcriptome sequencing was used for ST2825‑treated PANC‑1 cells compared with untreated PANC‑1 cells. The levels of related factors were measured using reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR and western blot analysis. Chromatin immunoprecipitation, co‑immunoprecipitation, transcription factor assay and an NF‑κB phospho‑antibody array were performed to identify the detailed underlying mechanisms. Animal experiments were performed to verify the effects of ST2825 on PDAC, which were found in the in vitro experiments. MyD88 was found to be overexpressed in PDAC. ST2825 induced the G2/M phase cell cycle arrest and apoptosis of PDAC cells. ST2825 inhibited MyD88 dimerization to inactivate the NF‑κB pathway. ST2825 inhibited AKT1 expression and induced p21 overexpression to induce G2/M phase cell cycle arrest and apoptosis by inhibiting NF‑κB transcriptional activity. NF‑κB activation, AKT1 overexpression or p21 knockdown partially reversed the effects of ST2825 in PDAC. On the whole, the findings of the present study demonstrate that ST2825 induces G2/M cell cycle arrest and apoptosis via the MyD88/NF‑κB/AKT1/p21 pathway in PDAC. MyD88 may thus serve as a potential therapeutic target in PDAC. ST2825 may serve as a novel agent for the targeted therapy of PDAC in the future.

Casticin suppresses RANKL‑induced osteoclastogenesis and prevents ovariectomy‑induced bone loss by regulating the AKT/ERK and NF‑κB signaling pathways

Postmenopausal osteoporosis is a systemic metabolic disease that chronically endangers public health and is typically characterized by low bone mineral density and marked bone fragility. The excessive bone resorption activity of osteoclasts is a major factor in the pathogenesis of osteoporosis; therefore, strategies aimed at inhibiting osteoclast activity may prevent bone decline and attenuate the process of osteoporosis. Casticin (Cas), a natural compound, has anti‑inflammatory and antitumor properties. However, the role of Cas in bone metabolism remains largely unclear. The present study found that the receptor activator of nuclear factor‑κΒ (NF‑κB) ligand‑induced osteoclast activation and differentiation were inhibited by Cas. Tartrate‑resistant acid phosphatase staining revealed that Cas inhibited osteoclast differentiation, and bone resorption pit assays demonstrated that Cas affected the function of osteoclasts. Cas significantly reduced the expression of osteoclast‑specific genes and related proteins, such as nuclear factor of activated T cells, cytoplasmic 1 and c‑Fos at the mRNA and protein level in a concentration‑dependent manner. Cas inhibited osteoclast formation by blocking the AKT/ERK and NF‑κB signaling pathways, according to the intracellular signaling analysis. The microcomputed tomography and tissue staining of tibiae from ovariectomized mice revealed that Cas prevented the bone loss induced by estrogen deficiency and reduced osteoclast activity in vivo. Collectively, these findings indicated that Cas may be used to prevent osteoporosis.

Inhibition of LPS‑induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation by stem cell‑conditioned culture media in human gingival epithelial cells

Interleukin (IL)‑1β is a pathogenic factor associated with the destruction of periodontal tissue in periodontitis. IL‑1β processing is regulated by cytosolic machinery known as the inflammasome. Porphyromonas gingivalis infection and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) have an important role in the destruction of periodontal tissue in periodontitis. P. gingivalis infection and LPS have been reported to activate the NOD‑like receptor family pyrin domain‑containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome in human oral cells. Stem cell therapy exhibits anti‑inflammatory effects and stem cell‑conditioned culture media (SCM) shows similar beneficial effects. The present study tested the hypothesis that SCM inhibits activation of the inflammasome and protects human gingival epithelial cells (GECs) against LPS‑induced inflammatory damage. Human GECs were treated with or without LPS plus SCM or control cell media. NLPR3 inflammasome components and inflammatory factors were measured by western blotting and immunofluorescence. The present study revealed that LPS induced an increase in the expression of inflammasome components, NLRP3, apoptosis‑associated speck‑like protein containing a caspase recruitment domain (ASC) and caspase‑1. Co‑immunoprecipitation revealed increased binding of NLRP3 and ASC, and immunofluorescence showed an increased co‑localization of ASC and caspase‑1, suggesting that LPS stimulated assembly of the NLRP3 inflammasome. SCM inhibited the overexpression and assembly of NLRP3 inflammasome components induced by LPS. Furthermore, SCM blocked the increase in IL‑1β production induced by LPS and inhibited the translocation of the inflammatory factor, NF‑κB, into the nuclei. Consequently, SCM protected cells against LPS‑induced damage, as suggested by the recovery of disturbed E‑cadherin staining pattern, which indicates a disruption in epithelial integrity. In conclusion, treatment with SCM may attenuate LPS‑induced inflammatory damage in human GECs via inhibition of NLRP3 inflammasome activation, suggesting a potential therapeutic use for SCM.

Radiation prevents tumor progression by inhibiting the miR‑93‑5p/EphA4/NF‑κB pathway in triple‑negative breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is the most common type of cancer in women. Triple‑negative BC (TNBC) constitutes 10‑15% of all BC cases and is associated with a poor prognosis. It has previously been reported that microRNA (miR)‑93‑5p is dysregulated in plasma exosomes from patients with BC and that miR‑93‑5p improves radiosensitivity in BC cells. The present study identified EphA4 as a potential target gene of miR‑93‑5p and investigated the pathway related to miR‑93‑5p in TNBC. Cell transfection and nude mouse experiments were performed to verify the role of the miR‑93‑5p/EphA4/NF‑κB pathway. Moreover, miR‑93‑5p, EphA4 and NF‑κB were detected in clinical patients. The results revealed that EphA4 and NF‑κB were downregulated in the miR‑93‑5p overexpression group. By contrast, EphA4 and NF‑κB expression levels were not significantly altered in the miR‑93‑5p overexpression + radiation group compared with those in the radiation group. Furthermore, overexpression of miR‑93‑5p with concomitant radiation therapy significantly decreased the growth of TNBC tumors in vivo. In conclusion, the present study revealed that miR‑93‑5p targeted EphA4 in TNBC through the NF‑κB pathway. However, radiation therapy prevented tumor progression by inhibiting the miR‑93‑5p/EphA4/NF‑κB pathway. Therefore, it would be interesting to elucidate the role of miR‑93‑5p in clinical research.

Beneficial effect of the mitochondrial ATP‑sensitive potassium channel‑specific opener nicorandil on the collapsed lung via inhibition of apoptosis in clinical thoracic surgery

With the use of thoracoscopic surgery technology, one‑lung ventilation (OLV) is becoming more crucial as a basic requirement for enhanced recovery after surgery; however, it can lead to severe pulmonary injury, which is an issue for anesthesiologists. Therefore, it is important to protect pulmonary function during thoracic surgery anesthesia, particularly to protect the function of the collapsed lung. Our previous study on rabbits reported that nicorandil, a US Food and Drug Administration‑approved mitochondrial ATP‑sensitive potassium channel‑specific opener, can protect against lung injury in the collapsed lung. Therefore, the beneficial effect of nicorandil on OLV‑induced pulmonary injury in clinical thoracic surgery was further evaluated in the present study. Nicorandil was infused at 2 mg/h for 2 h from induction to 1 h after OLV in the nicorandil group. Trends in arterial oxygen desaturation (SaO₂), arterial partial pressure for oxygen (PaO₂) and the lung microstructure were assessed. ELISA was used to assess the levels of TNF‑α and malondialdehyde (MDA), and the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD). A TUNEL assay was performed to evaluate apoptosis. Western blotting was used to analyze the relative expression levels of signaling proteins associated with apoptosis. Western blotting was performed to evaluate the protein expression levels of hypoxia‑inducible factor 1α (HIF‑1α), PI3K, Akt and NF‑κB, and reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR was used to detect HIF‑1α mRNA expression levels in the lungs of patients infused with nicorandil and nitroglycerin. Nicorandil treatment was associated with higher SaO₂ and PaO₂ compared with nitroglycerin treatment in OLV. The levels of MDA and TNF‑α in the operated lung of the nicorandil group were significantly lower compared with those in the control group. In addition, nicorandil was associated with higher SOD activity compared with nitroglycerin. The nicorandil‑treated lung, similar to the sham group, exhibited improved microstructure and less apoptosis in the experimental group. The protein expression levels of PI3K, phosphorylated Akt and HIF‑1α were significantly increased, whereas NF‑κB was significantly decreased in the nicorandil‑treated lung compared with the control group. Overall, nicorandil demonstrated beneficial effects by decreasing apoptosis in the operated lung, which was collapsed and then re‑expanded during OLV in thoracic surgery anesthesia. Nicorandil may serve a vital role by decreasing the overloading of calcium in mitochondria, shutting off the mitochondrial membrane permeability transition pore, reducing the release of cytochrome c, simultaneously triggering activation of the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway around the cell membrane, downregulating NF‑κB, upregulating HIF‑1α, and then reducing Bax/Bcl‑2, caspase‑3 and apoptosis. The trial registration was ChiCTR‑IOR‑17014061 (registered on December 20, 2017).

4‑Methoxydalbergione inhibits esophageal carcinoma cell proliferation and migration by inactivating NF‑κB

4‑Methoxydalbergione (4‑MD) can inhibit the progression of certain types of cancer; however, its effects on esophageal cancer (EC) remain unclear. The present study aimed to investigate the inhibitory effect of 4‑MD on EC and its molecular mechanism. ECA‑109 and KYSE‑105 cells were treated with or without lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and 4‑MD. Cell Counting Kit‑8 and colony formation assays were used to analyze cell proliferation. Wound healing assay was performed to evaluate cell migration. ELISA and western blotting were performed to measure the expression levels of NF‑κB and inflammatory cytokines. In cells treated with 4‑MD, proliferation and migration were significantly inhibited, the levels of inflammatory cytokines were downregulated and the NF‑κB signaling pathway was inactivated. Notably, proliferation, migration, inflammation and NF‑κB were promoted by LPS, whereas 4‑MD reversed the increases induced by LPS in EC cells. In conclusion, 4‑MD may attenuate the proliferation and migration of EC cells by inactivating the NF‑κB signaling pathway.

via the NF‑κB and ERK‑mediated NFATc1 signaling pathways

Coriandrum sativum L. (CSL) is an aromatic plant that belongs to the Apiaceae family. The present study aimed to determine the effects of the ethanol extract of the aerial part of CSL on osteoclast formation in vitro and in vivo, and the underlying molecular mechanism of its anti‑osteoclastogenic effect. The levels of osteoclast formation and bone resorption were evaluated by tartrate‑resistant acid phosphatase staining and bone resorption pit assays. The expression levels of osteoclast‑related molecules were analyzed by reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR and western blotting. The ethanol extract of CSL suppressed osteoclast formation in a mouse co‑culture system. In osteoblasts, CSL exerted a minor effect on the mRNA ratio of receptor activator of nuclear factor‑κB (NF‑κB) ligand (RANKL) to osteoprotegerin, suggesting a direct effect of CSL on osteoclast precursors. Notably, CSL inhibited RANKL‑induced osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption activity in bone marrow‑derived macrophage cultures. Mechanistically, CSL abolished RANKL‑induced NF‑κB and extracellular signal‑regulated kinase (ERK) MAPK activation, which effectively impaired the induction of c‑Fos and nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFATc1). Finally, the ethanol extract of CSL prevented osteoclast formation in a lipopolysaccharide‑induced calvarial bone loss model in vivo. The findings of the present study suggested that CSL may suppress osteoclast differentiation and function by downregulating the NF‑κB and ERK/c‑Fos/NFATc1 signaling pathways. Thus, CSL could be explored as a potential candidate for the prevention and treatment of osteolytic diseases.

Carnosol inhibits osteoclastogenesis in vivo and in vitro by blocking the RANKL‑induced NF‑κB signaling pathway

Bone homeostasis is maintained by osteoclast-mediated bone resorption and osteoblast-mediated bone formation. Disruption of bone homeostasis due to excessive osteoclastogenesis or reduced osteogenesis results in various disorders, such as postmenopausal osteoporosis. Receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL) stimulation of the NF-κB signaling pathway is essential in osteoclastogenesis. The aim of the present study was to investigate the novel effects of carnosol, an active compound found in Rosmarinus officinalis, on RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis both in vitro and in vivo. TRAP staining showed that carnosol significantly inhibited osteoclasts differentiation of bone marrow monocytes and RAW264.7 cells. Western blot results showed that the protein expression levels of osteoclastogenesis-associated genes, including cathepsin K, tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase and MMP-9, were markedly inhibited by carnosol, which may have suppressed osteoclast function. Furthermore, western blot and immunofluorescent staining results revealed that carnosol markedly suppressed the phosphorylation of p65 induced by RANKL and blocked its nuclear translocation, indicating the suppression of NF-κB signaling pathway. H&E staining and micro-CT results showed that in vivo treatment with carnosol significantly attenuated ovariectomy-induced bone loss in mice. In conclusion, the present study indicated that carnosol may suppress osteoclastogenesis both in vivo and in vitro by inhibiting the activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway. Carnosol may therefore be a potential novel therapeutic candidate for the clinical treatment of osteoclast-related disorders.

Protection against ulcerative colitis and colorectal cancer by evodiamine via anti‑inflammatory effects

Evodiamine (Evo) is an alkaloid that can be extracted from the berry fruit Evodia rutaecarpa and has been reported to exert various pharmacological effects, such as antidiarrheal, antiemetic and antiulcer effects. In vivo, the potential effects of Evo were investigated in a mouse model of dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)‑induced ulcerative colitis (UC) and in adenomatous polyposis coli (Apc)MinC/Gpt C57BL/6 mice with colorectal cancer (CRC), where the latter harbours a point‑mutation in the Apc gene. Evo suppressed the degree of weight loss and colon shortening induced by DSS, decreased the disease activity index value and ameliorated the pathological alterations in the colon of mice with UC as examined via H&E staining of colon tissues. In addition, Evo decreased the number and size of colonic tumors in ApcMinC/Gpt mice. Proteomics (colon tissues), ELISA (colon tissues and serum) and western blotting (colon tissues) results revealed that Evo inhibited NF‑κB to mediate the levels of various cytokines, including, in the DSS‑induced UC model, IL‑1β, IL‑2, IL‑6, IL‑8, TNF‑α, IFN‑γ (ELISA of colon tissues and serum), NF‑κB, IKKα+β, IκBα, S100a9, TLR4 and MyD88 (western blotting of colon tissues), and, in the colorectal cancer model, IL‑1β, IL‑2, IL‑6, IL‑15, IL‑17, IL‑22, TNF‑α (ELISA of colon tissues and serum), NF‑κB, IKKα+β, IκBα and S100a9 (western blotting of colon tissues), to achieve its anti‑inflammatory and antitumor effects. In vitro, Evo also reduced the viability of the colon cancer cell line SW480, inhibited mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP detection), caused G2/M‑phase arrest (cell cycle detection) and suppressed the translocation of phosphorylated‑NF‑κB from the cytoplasm into the nucleus (immunofluorescence of p‑NF‑κB). Theoretical evidence (MD simulations) suggest that Evo may bind to the ordered domain (α‑helix) of NF‑κB to influence this protein. The protein secondary structure changes were analyzed by the cpptraj module in Amber. In addition, these data provide experimental evidence that Evo may be an effective agent for treating UC and CRC.

Piceatannol suppresses inflammation and promotes apoptosis in rheumatoid arthritis‑fibroblast‑like synoviocytes by inhibiting the NF‑κB and MAPK signaling pathways

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease that mainly targets the synovial membrane, thus causing stiffness, deformity and dysfunction of joints. To date, no effective anti-inflammatory treatments are available for RA. Piceatannol (PIC) is a natural derivative of resveratrol, which has been reported to attenuate the inflammatory response. To evaluate the effect of PIC on RA and to determine the underlying molecular target of PIC, both in vitro and in vivo experiments were performed in the present study. A CIA rat model was established to evaluate the therapeutic effects of PIC. TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 levels in blood were measured by ELISA. Western blotting, immunofluorescence analysis and reverse transcription-quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) were used to analyze the expression levels of protein and mRNA. In vitro, RA-fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs) were pretreated with PIC and subsequently stimulated with TNF-α. The results revealed that PIC significantly upregulated the expression levels of proapoptotic proteins such as Bax and cleaved caspase-3. PIC also significantly reduced the production of proinflammatory cytokines, including PGE2, IL-6 and IL-1β, and significantly downregulated the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 at both the mRNA and protein expression levels. Furthermore, PIC downregulated the expression of MMP-3 and MMP-13, which have been found to be highly expressed in the synovium of patients with RA. Mechanistically, PIC was capable of significantly downregulating the expression levels of proteins involved in the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. The results of the in vivo experiments using a rat collagen-induced arthritis model demonstrated that PIC decreased the arthritis score and exerted beneficial effects in cartilage and significantly reduced the expression of MMP-13. In conclusion, the findings of the present study revealed that PIC could suppress the inflammatory response, promote apoptosis, and exert a significant regulatory effect on the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways in RA-FLSs. Therefore, PIC may represent a potential drug for the future treatment of RA.

Hydrogen sulfide attenuates cigarette smoke‑induced pyroptosis through the TLR4/NF‑κB signaling pathway

Pyroptosis, a type of programmed cell death mediated by caspases‑1 or ‑11, may play an important role in airway epithelial injury and airway remodeling, thereby promoting the occurrence of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Studies have suggested that hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) plays a protective role against COPD by inhibiting the activation of the NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome. The present study established a rat model of cigarette smoke (CS)‑induced COPD to observe the effects of H₂S on cell pyroptosis. A 16HBE cell model was also used to further examine the effects of H₂S on the Toll‑like receptor 4 (TLR4)/NF‑κB signaling pathway is affected by, and to determine the underlying mechanisms. The results revealed that cell pyroptosis was significantly promoted in the model of CS‑induced COPD. The cellular experiments also revealed that CS induced the pyroptosis of the cells in a NLRP3/gasdermin D (GSDMD)‑dependent manner. In addition, H₂S significantly attenuated the effects of CS extract (CSE) on pyroptosis, cell viability and the expression levels of pyroptosis‑related proteins, indicating that H₂S inhibited pyroptosis by decreasing NLRP3 expression and promoting GSDMD activation. It was also identified that CSE activated TLR4 protein in 16HBE cells, while this was inhibited by H₂S. Furthermore, TLR4 and NF‑κB overexpression significantly abolished the effects of H₂S on cell pyroptosis. On the whole, the findings of the present study demonstrate the role of pyroptosis in the development of COPD and provide an experimental basis for the use of H₂S and drugs targeting the TLR4/NF‑κB pathway to exert protective effects against COPD.

10Z‑Hymenialdisine inhibits angiogenesis by suppressing NF‑κB activation in pancreatic cancer cell lines

10Z-Hymenialdisine is a natural product derived from the marine sponge Axinella carteri. 10Z-Hymenialdisine has anti-inflammatory effects exerted through NF-κB; however, it is unclear whether 10Z-Hymenialdisine has anti-angiogenic effects in cancer cells. In the present study, both the anti-angiogenic and antimetastatic effects of this compound in pancreatic cancer were investigated. It was initially confirmed that 10Z-Hymenialdisine significantly inhibited the proliferation of pancreatic cancer cells. Next, using both reverse transcription-quantitative PCR and ELISA, it was demonstrated that 10Z-Hymenialdisine significantly suppressed the expression of VEGF and IL-8 mRNAs and proteins in pancreatic cancer. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that 10Z-Hymenialdisine inhibited NF-κB activity in pancreatic cancer cell lines. It was also identified that 10Z-Hymenialdisine inhibited tube formation in EA.hy926 cells. In vivo, 10Z-Hymenialdisine significantly inhibited the growth of BxPC-3 pancreatic cancer cells that were subcutaneously injected into model mice. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that 10Z-Hymenialdisine exerted anti-angiogenic effects by suppressing NF-κB activity and angiogenic factors, such as VEGF and IL-8, in pancreatic cancer cell lines. 10Z-Hymenialdisine has potential applications as a novel therapeutic agent for the treatment of pancreatic cancer.

Methyl p‑hydroxycinnamate exerts anti‑inflammatory effects in mouse models of lipopolysaccharide‑induced ARDS

Methyl p-hydroxycinnamate (MH), an esterified derivative of p-Coumaric acid exerts anti-inflammatory effects on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages. Based on these effects, the present study investigated the protective role of MH in a mouse model of LPS-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). The results demonstrated that administration of LPS (5 mg/kg intranasally) markedly increased the neutrophil/macrophage numbers and levels of inflammatory molecules (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β and reactive oxygen species) in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of mice. On histological examination, the presence of inflammatory cells was observed in the lungs of mice administered LPS. LPS also notably upregulated the secretion of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and protein content in BALF as well as expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase in the lungs of mice; it also caused activation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and NF-κB signaling. However, MH treatment significantly suppressed LPS-induced upregulation of inflammatory cell recruitment, inflammatory molecule levels and p38MAPK/NF-κB activation, and also led to upregulation of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) expression in the lungs of mice. In addition, the ability of MH to induce HO-1 expression was confirmed in RAW264.7 macrophages. Taken together, the findings of the present study indicated that MH may exert protective effects against airway inflammation in ARDS mice by inhibiting inflammatory cell recruitment and the production of inflammatory molecules.

Epsin 3 potentiates the NF‑κB signaling pathway to regulate apoptosis in breast cancer

Endocrine drug resistance is common in some patients with estrogen receptor (ER)-positive breast cancer, so it is necessary to identify potential therapeutic targets. The aim of the present study was to investigate the regulatory effect and mechanism of epsin 3 (EPN3) expression level changes on the proliferation and apoptosis of ER-positive breast cancer. Online GEPIA was used to analyze the expression level of EPN3 in breast cancer. The online Kaplan-Meier plotter tool was used to analyze the relationship between EPN3 expression and the prognosis of patients with breast cancer. Reverse transcription-quantitative PCR, immunohistochemistry and western blotting were performed to detect the mRNA and protein expression levels of EPN3 in breast cancer tissues and cells. A lentiviral infection system was used to knockdown the expression of EPN3 in breast cancer cell lines. Cell Counting Kit-8 and flow cytometry assays were conducted to detect the effect of EPN3 knockdown on breast cancer cell proliferation and apoptosis. Western blotting was used to detect the regulation of EPN3 expression on NF-κB, and immunofluorescence was performed to detect the effect of EPN3 expression on NF-κB nuclear translocation. The results demonstrated that the expression level of EPN3 in breast cancer tissues was higher compared with that in adjacent tissues (P<0.05). The expression level of EPN3 in the ER-positive breast cancer cell line, MCF7, was higher compared with that in the other cell lines (MCF10A, ZR75-1, MDA-MB-231, BT549 and SK-BR-3). After knocking down the expression of EPN3 in MCF7 cells, the proliferative ability of the cells was decreased, and the apoptosis rate was increased (P<0.05). After EPN3 knockdown in MCF7 cells, the phosphorylation of NF-κB was decreased (P<0.05), and the nuclear translocation signal was weakened. Thus, it was suggested that EPN3 promoted cell proliferation and inhibited cell apoptosis by regulating the NF-κB signaling pathway in ER-positive breast cancer.

Lycopus lucidus Turcz ameliorates DNCB‑induced atopic dermatitis in BALB/c mice

Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a chronic inflammatory allergic skin disease, characterized by pruritic and eczematous skin lesions. Lycopus lucidus Turcz (LLT) is a perennial herb that has been reported to have various biological properties, including effects on blood circulation, as well as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-vascular inflammation and wound-healing effects. However, whether LLT improves dermatitis and the underlying mechanisms has yet to be determined. The aim of the present study was to determine whether LLT can improve 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB)-induced dermatitis and to verify the inhibitory effect of LLT on the expression of chemokines and pro-inflammatory cytokines in the HaCaT immortalized keratinocyte cell line. In addition, the anti-inflammatory function of LLT in RAW264.7 mouse macrophages was investigated. In the DNCB-induced AD mouse model, LLT inhibited infiltration by mast cells, eosinophils and CD8⁺ cells in the dorsal skin tissue of AD mice, and suppressed the expression of IgE and IL-6 in serum. In addition, LLT inhibited the phosphorylation of ERK and JNK, as well as NF-κB in skin tissue. In the HaCaT cell model induced by TNF-α/IFN-γ, LLT inhibited the expression of thymus and activation-regulated chemokine, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, TNF-α and IL-1β, whilst inhibiting the phosphorylation of NF-κB. In addition, in the lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 cell inflammation model, LLT inhibited the expression of TNF-α and IFN-γ, the nuclear translocation of NF-κB and the phosphorylation of ERK and JNK. These results suggested that LLT may be a promising candidate for the treatment of inflammatory dermatitis.

NF‑κB/IκBα signaling pathways are essential for resistance to heat stress‑induced ROS production in pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells

The results of a previous study demonstrated that heat stress (HS) triggered oxidative stress, which in turn induced the apoptosis of epithelial cells. These results uncovered a novel mechanism underlying the activation of NF-κB in primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells. The present study aimed to further investigate the role of NF-κB/IκBα signaling pathways in the inhibition of HS-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and cytotoxicity in endothelial cells. The results of the present study demonstrated that HS triggered a significant amount of NF-κB and IκBα nuclear translocation without IκBα degradation in a time-dependent manner. Mutant constructs of IκBα phosphorylation sites (Ser32, Ser36) were employed in rat pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells (PMVECs). Cell Counting Kit-8 assays demonstrated that both the small interfering (si)RNA-mediated knockdown of p65 and IκBα mutant constructs significantly decreased cell viability and aggravated ROS accumulation in HS-induced rat PMVECs compared with the control. Additionally, western blot analysis revealed that p65 siRNA attenuated the protein expression of IκBα. However, IκBα mutant constructs failed to attenuate NF-κB activation and nuclear translocation, indicating that IκBα-independent pathways contributed to NF-κB activity and nucleus translocation in a time-dependent manner following HS. Collectively, the results of the present study suggested that the NF-κB/IκBα pathway was essential for resistance to HS-induced ROS production and cytotoxicity in rat PMVECs, and that it could be a potential therapeutic target to reduce the mortality and morbidity of heat stroke.

Bile reflux and hypopharyngeal cancer (Review)

Laryngopharyngeal reflux, a variant of gastroesophageal reflux disease, has been considered a risk factor in the development of hypopharyngeal cancer. Bile acids are frequently present in the gastroesophageal refluxate and their effect has been associated with inflammatory and neoplastic changes in the upper aerodigestive tract. Recent in vitro and in vivo studies have provided direct evidence of the role of acidic bile refluxate in hypopharyngeal carcinogenesis and documented the crucial role of NF-κB as a key mediator of early oncogenic molecular events in this process and also suggested a contribution of STAT3. Acidic bile can cause premalignant changes and invasive squamous cell cancer in the affected hypopharynx accompanied by DNA damage, elevated p53 expression and oncogenic mRNA and microRNA alterations, previously linked to head and neck cancer. Weakly acidic bile can also increase the risk for hypopharyngeal carcinogenesis by inducing DNA damage, exerting anti-apoptotic effects and causing precancerous lesions. The most important findings that strongly support bile reflux as an independent risk factor for hypopharyngeal cancer are presented in the current review and the underlying mechanisms are provided.

Upregulation of RIP3 promotes necroptosis via a ROS‑dependent NF‑κB pathway to induce chronic inflammation in HK‑2 cells

Tubular atrophy/interstitial fibrosis (TA/IF) is a major cause of late allograft loss, and inflammation within areas of TA/IF is associated with adverse outcomes in kidney transplantation. However, there is currently no satisfactory method to suppress this inflammation to improve TA/IF. The present study aimed to determine the proinflammatory role of receptor-interacting protein 3 (RIP3) in TA/IF to discover a novel therapeutic target. Reverse transcription-quantitative PCR and western blotting were performed to detect the expression of RIP3 and inflammation-associated factors. Lactate dehydrogenase release assay was used to determine necroptosis. Fluorescent 2,7-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate was used to detect the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The results demonstrated that patients with chronic TA/IF exhibited upregulated receptor-interacting protein 3 (RIP3) expression compared with the patients who had a favorable recovery after renal transplant. Therefore, the current study used normal renal tubular epithelial cells HK-2 to establish a cellular model with a high expression level of RIP3 in order to investigate the effect of RIP3 on renal epithelial cells after transplantation. The western blotting results demonstrated that overexpression of RIP3 could significantly increase the phosphorylation level of the necroptosis executive molecule mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein. Lactate dehydrogenase release, a key feature of necroptosis, was also markedly improved by RIP3 overexpression. Moreover, a higher inflammatory response was detected in HK-2 cells with RIP3 overexpression, and this elevated inflammation could be restored by the necroptosis inhibitor necrosulfonamide. Of note, it was found that overexpression of RIP3 activated the NF-κB signaling pathway via the excessive accumulation of ROS to induce necroptosis, which ultimately led to inflammation. Collectively, these findings indicated that overexpression of RIP3 promoted necroptosis via a ROS-dependent NF-κB pathway to induce chronic inflammation, suggesting that RIP3 may have the potential to be a therapeutic target against inflammation in TA/IF.

ADAM10 attenuates the development of abdominal aortic aneurysms in a mouse model

An abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a life-threatening disease associated with a high mortality rate. At present, surgery or minimally invasive interventions are used in clinical treatment, especially for small aneurysms. However, the benefits of surgical repair are not obvious, and AAA ruptures can be prevented by aneurysm therapy to inhibit the growth of small aneurysms. Therefore, evaluating effective drugs to treat small AAAs is urgently required. Chronic inflammation is the main pathological feature of aneurysmal tissues. The aim of the present study was to investigate the protective role and underlying mechanism of ADAM metallopeptidase domain 10 (ADAM10). In the present study, a mouse model of AAA was established via porcine pancreatic elastase perfusion for 5 min per day for 14 days. ADAM10 (6 mg/kg) was injected intraperitoneally following 3 days of porcine pancreatic elastase perfusion in the ADAM10 group and the treatment continued for 10 days. The maximum inner luminal diameters of the infrarenal abdominal aortas were measured using an animal ultrasound system. The levels of high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) and soluble receptor for advanced glycosylation end products in serum samples were measured by ELISA. Hematoxylin and eosin and elastin van Gieson staining were performed to observe morphology, integrity of the elastin layers and elastin degradation. CD68 expression was detected by immunohistochemical staining. Reverse transcription-quantitative PCR and western blotting were used for detection of mRNA and protein levels. The gelatinolytic activities of MMP-2 and MMP-9 were quantified via gelatin zymography analysis. These results showed that ADAM10 inhibited HMGB1/RAGE/NF-κB signaling and MMP activity in the pathogenesis of pancreatic elastase-induced AAA, which provide insight into the molecular mechanism of AAA and suggested that ADAM10 may be a potential therapeutic target for AAA.

Tumor necrosis factor α‑induced protein 8‑like 2 contributes to penehyclidine hydrochloride pretreatment against lipopolysaccharide‑induced acute lung injury in a mouse model

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of penehyclidine hydrochloride (PHC) pretreatment on mice with lipopolysaccharide (LPS)‑induced acute lung injury (ALI) and its possible underlying mechanisms. Mice were randomly separated into six groups: i) Sham group; ii) LPS group; iii) LPS + PHC group; iv) tumor necrosis factor a‑induced protein 8‑like protein 2 (TIPE2) group; v) LPS + TIPE2 group; and vi) LPS + TIPE2 + PHC group. The ALI model was induced using LPS through intratracheal injection. The mice received adenovirus gene to induce the overexpression of TIPE2. After mice were sacrificed, lung injury indices were assessed, and arterial blood, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid and lung tissues were collected for subsequent assays. Expression levels of related proteins were detected by using western blotting. It was found that compared with the sham group, the mice treated with LPS showed increased lung injury and dysfunctions of gas exchange. However, these trends were significantly ameliorated in the LPS + PHC group. Evaluation of protein expression in lung tissues showed that the increased expression of nuclear NF‑κB p65 and p‑c‑Jun N‑terminal kinase (JNK) induced by LPS were suppressed in the LPS + PHC group and the expression of TIPE2 was increased. The mice that received adenovirus gene to induce TIPE2 overexpression could also showed protective effects compared with the mice in the LPS group. However, the expression of TIPE2 decreased rather than increased in LPS group. In the mice pretreated with PHC, the expression of TIPE2 increased in mice with LPS‑induced ALI. To conclude, PHC pretreatment could inhibit the occurrence of inflammation and apoptosis in LPS‑induced ALI. This process may be related to the activation of TIPE2 and the inhibition of NF‑κB and JNK signaling pathway in the lungs of mice.

Serum‑derived exosomes from house dust mite‑sensitized guinea pigs contribute to inflammation in BEAS‑2B cells via the TLR4‑NF‑κB pathway

Airway epithelial cells, which are the first physical defense barrier against allergens, play a pivotal role in immunity, airway inflammation and airway remodeling. The damage and dysfunction of these cells trigger the development of airway inflammatory diseases. Exosomes, which exist in various bodily fluids, mediate cell-cell communication and participate in the immune response process. The present study aimed to investigate whether serum exosomes play a pro-inflammatory role in bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B cells) and, if so, explore the underlying molecular mechanisms. A guinea pig model of House dust mite (HDM)-induced asthma was established by sensitizing the rodents with HDM and PBS, and serum-derived exosomes were harvested. It was found that serum-derived exosomes from HDM-sensitized guinea pigs displayed higher levels of exosomal markers than those from controls. Additionally, western blot analysis and reverse transcription-quantitative PCR indicated that serum-derived exosomes from HDM-sensitized guinea pigs carried heat shock protein 70 and triggered an inflammatory response in BEAS-2B cells via the toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-NF-κB pathway. However, TAK-242, an inhibitor of the expression of TLR4, blocked the activation of the TLR4-NF-κB pathway. These findings provided a novel mechanism for exosome-mediated inflammatory responses and a new perspective for the intervention of inflammatory airway disorders.

Sinigrin attenuates angiotensin II‑induced kidney injury by inactivating nuclear factor‑κB and extracellular signal‑regulated kinase signaling in vivo and in vitro

The present study investigated the function of sinigrin in angiotensin II (Ang II)‑induced renal damage. The results demonstrated that systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) were increased in Ang II‑challenged rats, and sinigrin treatment inhibited their increase. The levels of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and serum creatinine (SCR) were increased by Ang II in the rats, and these were reversed by sinigrin in a dose‑dependent manner. In addition, the Ang II‑induced elevation of urinary protein levels was inhibited by sinigrin treatment. Glomerular basement membrane thickness and ECM degradation markers, such as collagen I, collagen IV and fibronectin, were suppressed by sinigrin in the Ang II‑challenged rats. Moreover, the levels of inflammatory regulators, including tumor necrosis factor‑α (TNF‑α), interleukin‑6 (IL‑6) and monocyte chemoattractant protein‑1 (MCP‑1), were reduced following sinigrin treatment of the Ang II‑challenged rats and in Ang II‑exposed proximal tubule epithelial cells. Furthermore, the superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) levels were downregulated, whereas the malondialdehyde (MDA) levels were upregulated by Ang II; these effects were reversed by sinigrin treatment in vivo and in vitro. Mechanistically, sinigrin inhibited the Ang II‑induced phosphorylation of ERK, p65 and IκBα. Thus, sinigrin attenuated Ang II‑induced renal injury by inactivating ERK and NF‑κB signaling. Sinigrin may thus prove to be a potential candidate for the treatment of hypertension‑induced kidney damage.

Humanized anti‑TLR4 monoclonal antibody ameliorates lipopolysaccharide‑related acute kidney injury by inhibiting TLR4/NF‑κB signaling

A humanized anti‑Toll‑like receptor 4 (TLR4) monoclonal antibody (mAb) was previously produced using phage antibody library technology, and it was found that the mAb could effectively ameliorate lipopolysaccharide (LPS)‑induced damage in macrophages. The present study investigated the protective effects exerted by the humanized anti‑TLR4 mAb against LPS‑induced acute kidney injury (AKI), as well as the underlying mechanisms. Female C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into four groups (n=8 per group): i) Control; ii) LPS; iii) LPS + humanized anti‑TLR4 mAb (1 µg/g); and iv) LPS + humanized anti‑TLR4 mAb (10 µg/g). Serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, IL‑6, TNFα and IL‑1β levels were then examined, followed by renal pathology assessment, immunohistochemical staining, reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR and western blotting to assess apoptosis/survival/inflammation‑related molecules and kidney injury molecule (KIM)‑1. The humanized anti‑TLR4 mAb successfully ameliorated LPS‑induced AKI and renal pathological damage. The humanized anti‑TLR4 mAb also dose‑dependently suppressed LPS‑induced elevations in serum IL‑6, TNFα and IL‑1β, and decreased the renal expression levels of myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88), IKKα/β, IκB, p65 and KIM‑1. Compared with the LPS group, renal Bax and KIM‑1 expression levels were significantly downregulated, and Bcl‑2 expression was notably upregulated by the humanized anti‑TLR4 mAb. Moreover, the humanized anti‑TLR4 mAb also significantly decreased the protein expression levels of MyD88, phosphorylated (p)‑IKKα/β, p‑IκB and p‑p65 in the renal tissues compared with the LPS group. Therefore, the present study indicated that the anti‑inflammatory effects of the humanized anti‑TLR4 mAb against LPS‑related AKI in mice were mediated via inhibition of the TLR4/NF‑κB signaling pathway.

Anti‑inflammatory role of microRNA‑429 in human gingival epithelial cells‑inhibition of IL‑8 production through direct binding to IKKβ mRNA

MicroRNAs (miRNAs), a family of small non‑coding RNAs, serve a pivotal role in the regulation of the inflammation by modulating the expression of various genes. However, the molecular mechanism by which miRNAs regulate inflammation‑associated molecules in oral epithelial cells remains to be elucidated. The present study examined the biological function of miR‑429 by performing the gain‑/loss‑of‑function studies of miR‑429 in a gingival squamous cell carcinoma line Ca9‑22 cells that either over‑ or under‑expressed miR‑429 through transient transfection with miR‑429 mimic or miR‑429 inhibitor, respectively. The results demonstrated that the over‑expression of miR‑429 suppressed the mRNA level of several interleukins, including IL‑8. In addition, the over‑expression of miR‑429 reduced IL‑8 secretion under the basal and TNF‑α stimulated conditions, whereas the secretion of IL‑8 was enhanced when miR‑429 was under‑expressed. The over‑expression of miR‑429 inhibited the activation of the transcription factor NF‑κB. Furthermore, we found that miR‑429 suppressed both mRNA and protein levels of IKKβ via its direct binding to the 3'‑untranslated region of IKKβ mRNA. In addition, the downregulation of IKKβ by small interfering RNA reduced both NF‑kB activity and IL‑8 production in Ca9‑22 cells. Taken together, the findings revealed the molecular mechanism of miR‑429 to regulate the inflammatory mediator in gingival cells and suggested that it could be useful as a therapeutic target of oral inflammatory diseases.

Attenuation of the upregulation of NF‑κB and AP‑1 DNA‑binding activities induced by tunicamycin or hypoxia/reoxygenation in neonatal rat cardiomyocytes by SERCA2a overexpression

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of the overexpression of sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+‑ATPase (SERCA2a) on endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress (ERS)‑associated inflammation in neonatal rat cardiomyocytes (NRCMs) induced by tunicamycin (TM) or hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R). The optimal multiplicity of infection (MOI) was 2 pfu/cell. Neonatal Sprague‑Dawley rat cardiomyocytes cultured in vitro were infected with adenoviral vectors carrying SERCA2a or enhanced green fluorescent protein genes, the latter used as a control. At 48 h following gene transfer, the NRCMs were treated with TM (10 µg/ml) or subjected to H/R to induce ERS. The results of electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) revealed that overexpression of SERCA2a attenuated the upregulation of nuclear factor (NF)‑κB and activator protein‑1 (AP‑1) DNA‑binding activities induced by TM or H/R. Western blot analysis and semi‑quantitative RT‑PCR revealed that the overexpression of SERCA2a attenuated the activation of the inositol‑requiring 1α (IRE1α) signaling pathway and ERS‑associated apoptosis induced by TM. The overexpression of SERCA2a also decreased the level of phospho‑p65 (Ser536) in the nucleus, as assessed by western blot analysis. However, the overexpression of SERCA2a induced the further nuclear translocation of NF‑κB p65 and higher levels of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)‑α transcripts in the NRCMs, indicating the occurrence of the ER overload response (EOR). Therefore, the overexpression of SERCA2a has a 'double‑edged sword' effect on ERS‑associated inflammation. On the one hand, it attenuates ERS and the activation of the IRE1α signaling pathway induced by TM, resulting in the attenuation of the upregulation of NF‑κB and AP‑1 DNA‑binding activities in the nucleus, and on the other hand, it induces EOR, leading to the further nuclear translocation of NF‑κB and the transcription of TNF‑α. The preceding EOR may precondition the NRCMs against subsequent ERS induced by TM. Further studies using adult rat cardiomyocytes are required to prevent the interference of EOR. The findings of the present study may enhance the current understanding of the role of SERCA2a in cardiomyocytes.

Propofol maintains Th17/Treg cell balance and reduces inflammation in rats with traumatic brain injury via the miR‑145‑3p/NFATc2/NF‑κB axis

Propofol is a commonly used intravenous anesthetic. The aim of the study was to examine the mechanism of propofol in traumatic brain injury (TBI) by regulating interleukin (IL)‑17 activity and maintaining the Th17/Treg balance. A rat model with moderate TBI was established using the weight‑drop method. Rats with TBI were regularly injected with propofol and their brain injuries were monitored. The peripheral blood of rats was collected to measure the Th17/Treg ratio. MicroRNA (miR)‑145‑3p expression was detected in the brain tissues of rats and antagomiR‑145‑3p was injected into the lateral ventricles of their brains to verify the effect of miR‑145‑3p on brain injury. The downstream target of miR‑145‑3p was predicted. The targeting relationship between miR‑145‑3p and nuclear factor of activated T cells c2 (NFATc2) was confirmed. NFATC2 expression and phosphorylation of NF‑κB pathway‑related proteins were measured. Propofol alleviated brain injury in rats with TBI and maintained the Th17/Treg balance. Propofol upregulated miR‑145‑3p expression in rat brains, while the inhibition of miR‑145‑3p reversed the effect of propofol on brain injury. A binding relationship was observed between miR‑145‑3p and NFATc2. Furthermore, propofol decreased the phosphorylation of p65 and IκBα, and inhibited activation of the NF‑κB pathway in the brains of rats with TBI. In conclusion, propofol maintained Th17/Treg balance and reduced inflammation in the rats with TBI via the miR‑145‑3p/NFATc2/NF‑κB axis.

Anti‑inflammatory effect of Chrysanthemum zawadskii, peppermint, Glycyrrhiza glabra herbal mixture in lipopolysaccharide‑stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages

The normal inflammatory reaction protects the body from harmful external factors, whereas abnormal chronic inflammation can cause various diseases, including cancer. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the anti‑inflammatory activity of a mixture of Chrysanthemum zawadskii, peppermint and Glycyrrhiza glabra (CPG) by analyzing the expression levels of inflammatory mediators, cytokines and transcription factors in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)‑stimulated Raw264.7 cells. A nitric oxide assay, ELISA, western blotting and immunofluorescence staining were performed to investigate the anti‑inflammatory activity of the CPG mixture. Pretreatment of Raw264.7 cells with CPG inhibited the increase of inflammatory mediators (inducible nitric oxide synthase, cyclooxygenase‑2 and IFN‑β) induced by LPS. Additionally, it inhibited the production of pro‑inflammatory cytokines (TNF‑α, IL‑6 and IL‑1β). CPG suppressed LPS‑induced phosphorylation of STAT1, AKT, Iκb and NF‑κB. Furthermore, CPG inhibited the translocation of NF‑κB into the nucleus. In summary, CPG could inhibit LPS‑induced inflammation, which occurs primarily through the AKT/Iκb/NF‑κB signaling pathway in RAW264.7 cells.

Lipoxin A4 protects against paraquat‑induced acute lung injury by inhibiting the TLR4/MyD88‑mediated activation of the NF‑κB and PI3K/AKT pathways

Paraquat (PQ) causes serious oxidative stress and inflammatory responses, particularly to the lungs. Since lipoxin A4 (LXA4) functions as an anti‑inflammatory mediator, the present study aimed to explore its effects on PQ‑induced acute lung injury (ALI) and to elucidate the possible underlying mechanisms. PQ was administered to male SD rats and RAW264.7 cells to establish a model of poisoning, and LXA4 was used as an intervention drug. LXA4 treatment attenuated PQ‑induced lung injury, and this was accompanied by decreased tumor necrosis factor (TNF)‑α and interleukin (IL)‑1β secretion levels, and reduced oxidative stress damage. Additionally, LXA4 treatment inhibited the activation of the inflammation‑related signaling molecules, Toll‑like receptor 4 (TLR4), myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88), nuclear factor (NF)‑κB p65, p‑phosphoinositide 3‑kinase (PI3K) and p‑AKT. Furthermore, the in vitro experiments further confirmed that the beneficial effects of LXA4 on PQ‑induced damage were TLR4‑dependent. Hence, the present study demonstrated that LXA4 attenuated PQ‑induced toxicity in lung tissue and RAW264.7 macrophages, and that this protective effect may be closely related to the mitigation of inflammatory responses, oxidative stress damage and the TLR4/MyD88‑mediated activation of the PI3K/AKT/NF‑κB pathway.

Schisandrin B inhibits epithelial‑mesenchymal transition and stemness of large‑cell lung cancer cells and tumorigenesis in xenografts via inhibiting the NF‑κB and p38 MAPK signaling pathways

Lung cancer is one of the most common types of cancer in the world, resulting in numerous cancer-associated deaths. The properties of cancer stem cells (CSCs) are important for the initiation and deterioration of lung cancer. Schisandrin B (SchB), an active compound extracted from Schisandra chinensis, exerts anticancer effects in various malignancies, including lung cancer. Nevertheless, the potential of SchB in epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and CSC features of large-cell lung cancer remains unclear. The present study established cancer stem-like cells derived from large-cell lung cancer cells, NCI-H460 and H661, and revealed that SchB inhibited the viability of cancer stem-like cells at concentrations of ≥40 µmol/l. Moreover, SchB prominently inhibited cell migration, invasion and EMT. Sphere-forming assays and western blotting demonstrated that the stemness of cancer stem-like cells was alleviated by SchB treatment. Mechanistically, the current findings revealed that SchB contributed to the suppression of the NF-κB and p38 MAPK signaling pathways. Notably, further results revealed that the malignant behaviors of NCI-H460-CSCs induced by the activation of the NF-κB and p38 MAPK signaling pathways were suppressed by SchB treatment. Consistently, the inhibitory role of SchB in EMT and CSC activities, as well as in the activation of the NF-κB and p38 MAPK signaling pathways, was confirmed in vivo. In conclusion, the present study demonstrated that SchB exerted inhibitory effects on large-cell lung cancer cells via targeting the NF-κB and p38 MAPK signaling pathways, suggesting that SchB may act as a potential therapeutic drug for large-cell lung cancer.

Isoacteoside attenuates acute kidney injury induced by severe acute pancreatitis

Severe acute pancreatitis (SAP) is a common acute abdominal disease accompanied by systemic inflammatory response syndrome, which may be complicated by acute kidney injury (AKI). Isoacteoside (ISO) is the active ingredient of Monochasma savatieri Franch. ex Maxim and has been reported to have anti‑inflammatory activities. The present study detected the effects of ISO on AKI induced by SAP in rat models, and the underlying mechanism. The optimum dose of ISO for treatment of AKI induced by SAP was determined. The serum levels of TNF‑α and IL‑6 were estimated using an ELISA. Kidney injury was evaluated by histopathological examination, and the expression levels of nitric oxide were also detected. The expression levels of Toll‑like receptor 4 (TLR4) and NF‑κB p65 were measured by immunohistochemistry and western blotting. The results revealed that ISO may serve a critical role in ameliorating AKI induced by SAP. These effects may be associated with the TLR4/NF‑κB signaling pathway.

Procyanidin B2 inhibits lipopolysaccharide‑induced apoptosis by suppressing the Bcl‑2/Bax and NF‑κB signalling pathways in human umbilical vein endothelial cells

Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) serve a critical role in maintaining normal vascular function. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which is released from pathogenic bacteria in the blood, induces HUVEC apoptosis and injury to cause vascular dysfunction and infectious vascular diseases. Procyanidin B2 (PB2) possesses numerous functions, including antioxidant, antitumor, anti‑inflammatory and antiapoptosis effects, but the molecular mechanism is not completely understood. The present study investigated the effects of PB2 on LPS‑induced cytotoxicity and apoptosis in HUVECs, as well as the underlying mechanisms. The effects of PB2 on LPS‑mediated alterations to cytotoxicity, mitochondrial membrane potential, apoptosis were assessed by performing Cell Counting Kit‑8, JC‑1 fluorescence, Hoechst 33258 staining assays, respectively. IL‑1β, IL‑6 and TNF‑α mRNA expression and protein levels were measured by performing reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR and ELISAs, respectively. Bcl‑2, Bax, cleaved caspase‑3, cleaved caspase‑7, cleaved caspase‑9, phosphorylated (p)‑IκB‑α, p‑IκB‑β, p‑NF‑κB‑p65 and total NF‑κB p65 protein expression levels were determined via western blotting. NF‑κB p65 nuclear translocation was assessed via immunofluorescence. PB2 pretreatment markedly attenuated LPS‑induced cytotoxicity and apoptosis in HUVECs. PB2 also significantly downregulated the expression levels of IL‑1β, IL‑6, TNF‑α, Bax, cleaved caspase‑3, cleaved caspase‑7, cleaved caspase‑9 and p‑NF‑κB‑p65, but upregulated the expression levels of Bcl‑2, p‑IκB‑α and p‑IκB‑β in LPS‑induced HUVECs. Moreover, PB2 markedly inhibited LPS‑induced NF‑κB p65 nuclear translocation in HUVECs. The results suggested that the potential molecular mechanism underlying PB2 was associated with the Bax/Bcl‑2 and NF‑κB signalling pathways. Therefore, PB2 may serve as a useful therapeutic for infectious vascular diseases.

Dexmedetomidine suppresses the development of abdominal aortic aneurysm by downregulating the mircoRNA‑21/PDCD 4 axis

Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a pathological state with permanent dilation, which indicates a fatal potential for aortic rupture. It has been reported that dexmedetomidine (Dex) and microRNA (miR)-21 are involved in the progression of AAA. Thus, the present study aimed to investigate the joint effects of these factors on AAA treatment. For this purpose, rat models of AAA were established with enzyme perfusion and the rats were then injected with Dex. Alterations in the abdominal aorta in rats with AAA were recorded. miR-21 expression in the rats with AAA was determined. Inflammatory factor expression was detected by western blot analysis. Subsequently, a dual-luciferase reporter gene assay was performed to verify the targeting association between miR-21 and programmed cell death protein 4 (PDCD4). Additionally, AAA-related indices and inflammatory responses were examined by an injection of a combination of antagomiR (ant)-miR-21 and Dex or lentivirus-PDCD4-short hairpin RNA. It was found that Dex markedly alleviated the development of AAA and downregulated the expression of inflammatory factors and matrix metalloproteinase in rats with AAA. The high expression of miR-21, which targets PDCD4, was observed in the rats with AAA. However, ant-miR-21 induced AAA development and inflammatory responses. Additionally, the inhibition of PDCD4 reduced AAA development and inflammatory responses. On the whole, the present study demonstrates that Dex inhibits AAA development by downregulating the miR-21/PCDP4 axis. The findings of the present study may provide novel insight for the treatment of AAA. These findings may provide a reference for the future treatment of AAA and may provide theoretical guidance for the early prevention and development of AAA.

Cigarette smoke extract stimulates PCSK9 production in HepG2 cells via ROS/NF‑κB signaling

Cigarette smoke (CS) exposure is a risk factor for dyslipidemia and atherosclerosis. Reduced expression of low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) in hepatocytes may be one of the underlying mechanisms for these disorders. The aim of the present study was to investigate the molecular mechanism underlying the regulatory effect of CS extract (CSE) on proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) and low LDLR expression in HepG2 cells. PCSK9 and LDLR mRNA and protein expression levels in HepG2 cells were evaluated after CSE treatment via reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blotting, respectively. In addition, total intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production was determined via 2,7-dichlorofluorescein diacetate fluorescence. CSE significantly increased PCSK9 expression and inhibited LDLR expression in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. Furthermore, CSE significantly induced ROS production and nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) activation. However, pretreatment with a ROS scavenger or an NF-κB inhibitor significantly attenuated the CSE-induced changes in PCSK9 and LDLR expression. In addition, pretreatment with melatonin markedly reduced ROS production, NF-κB activation and PCSK9 expression, and increased LDLR expression in the CSE-treated cells. These data suggest that melatonin inhibits CSE-regulated PCSK9 and LDLR production in HepG2 cells via ROS/NF-κB signaling.

Protective effects of curcumin against rat intestinal inflammation‑related motility disorders

Intestinal inflammation frequently occurs alongside dysmotility, which is characterized by altered myosin light chain phosphorylation levels. Curcumin, an active component from the ginger family, is reported to confer anti‑inflammatory effects. However, the effects of curcumin on both diarrhea and constipation associated inflammation remains to be elucidated. The present study was designed to investigate the effects of curcumin on diarrhea and constipation and to determine the related mechanisms. Sprague‑Dawley rats were used to establish diarrhea and constipation models via intracolonic acetic acid (4%) instillation or cold water gavage for 2 weeks, respectively. Blood samples were collected to measure the serum levels of the cytokines TNF‑α and IL‑1β using ELISA kits. Western blotting was performed to measure NF‑κB, RhoA, Rho‑related kinase 2, phosphorylated MLC₂₀, phosphorylated myosin phosphorylated target subunit 1, 130k Da‑MLC kinase (MLCK), c‑kit tyrosine kinase protein expression, and reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR was conducted to measure MLCK expression levels. The results indicated that curcumin reversed the elevations in the pro‑inflammatory cytokines IL‑1β and TNF‑α by inhibiting the NF‑κB pathway in rats with diarrhea and constipation. The results also indicated that myosin light chain (MLC) phosphorylation in intestinal smooth muscle was positively and negatively associated with the motility of inflammation‑related diarrhea and constipation in rats, respectively. Curcumin significantly reversed the increased MLC phosphorylation in the jejunum of the rats with diarrhea, significantly enhanced the reductions in inflammatory mediators, including TNF‑α and IL‑1β, of rats with constipation and significantly ameliorated the related hyper‑motility and hypo‑motility in rats with both diarrhea and constipation. In conclusion, the potential roles of the MLC kinase, c‑kit tyrosine and Rho A/Rho‑associated kinase 2 pathways, which are involved in curcumin‑induced amelioration of inflammation‑related diarrhea and constipation, were explored in the present study. Results from the present study suggested that curcumin has potential therapeutic value for treating intestinal inflammation and inflammation‑related motility disorders.

Escin inhibits angiogenesis by suppressing interleukin‑8 and vascular endothelial growth factor production by blocking nuclear factor‑κB activation in pancreatic cancer cell lines

Pancreatic cancer (PaCa) is one of the most aggressive types of cancer. Thus, the development of new and more effective therapies is urgently required. Escin, a pentacyclic triterpenoid from the horse chestnut, has been reported to exhibit antitumor potential by reducing cell proliferation and blocking the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway in several types of cancer. Our previous study reported that NF-κB enhanced the secretion of interleukin (IL)-8 and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), thereby inducing angiogenesis in PaCa cell lines. In the present study, it was examined whether escin inhibited angiogenesis by blocking NF-κB activation in PaCa. It was initially confirmed that escin, at concentrations >10 µM, significantly inhibited the proliferation of several PaCa cell lines. Next, using immunocytochemical staining, it was found that escin inhibited the nuclear translocation of NF-κB. Furthermore, ELISA confirmed that NF-κB activity in the escin-treated PaCa cells was significantly inhibited and reverse transcription-quantitative PCR showed that the mRNA expression levels of tumor necrosis factor-α-induced IL-8 and VEGF were significantly suppressed following escin treatment in the PaCa cell lines. ELISA also showed that escin decreased the secretion of IL-8 and VEGF from the PaCa cells. Furthermore, tube formation in immortalized human endothelial cells was inhibited following incubation with the supernatants from escin-treated PaCa cells. These results indicated that escin inhibited angiogenesis by reducing the secretion of IL-8 and VEGF by blocking NF-κB activity in PaCa. In conclusion, escin could be used as a novel molecular therapy for PaCa.

Ginkgolide C attenuates lipopolysaccharide‑induced acute lung injury by inhibiting inflammation via regulating the CD40/NF‑κB signaling pathway

Excessive lung inflammation caused by endotoxins, including lipopolysaccharide (LPS), mediates the detrimental effects of acute lung injury (ALI), as evidenced by severe alveolar epithelial cell injury. CD40, a member of the tumor necrosis factor receptor superfamily, serves as a central activator in triggering and transducing a series of severe inflammatory events during the pathological processes of ALI. Ginkgolide C (GC) is an efficient and specific inhibitor of CD40. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate whether GC alleviated LPS‑induced ALI, as well as the potential underlying mechanisms. LPS‑injured wild‑type and CD40 gene conditional knockout mice, and primary cultured alveolar epithelial cells isolated from these mice served as in vivo and in vitro ALI models, respectively. In the present study, histopathological assessment, polymorphonuclear neutrophil (PMN) infiltration, lung injury score, myeloperoxidase activity, wet‑to‑dry (W/D) weight ratio and hydroxyproline (Hyp) activity were assessed to evaluate lung injury. In addition, immunohistochemistry was performed to evaluate intracellular adhesion molecule‑1, vascular cell adhesion molecule‑1 and inducible nitric oxide synthase expression levels, and TNF‑α, IL‑1β, IL‑6 ELISAs and western blotting were conducted to elucidate the signaling pathway. The results demonstrated that GC alleviated LPS‑induced lung injury, as evidenced by improvements in ultrastructural characteristics and histopathological alterations of lung tissue, inhibited PMN infiltration, as well as reduced lung injury score, W/D weight ratio and hydroxyproline content. In LPS‑injured alveolar epithelial cells, GC significantly reduced IκBα phosphorylation, IKKβ activity and NF‑κB p65 subunit translocation via downregulating CD40, leading to a significant decrease in downstream inflammatory cytokine levels and protein expression levels. In conclusion, the results of the present study demonstrated that GC displayed a protective effect against LPS‑induced ALI via inhibition of the CD40/NF‑κB signaling pathway; therefore, the present study suggested that the CD40/NF‑κB signaling pathway might serve as a potential therapeutic target for ALI.

Shengxian decoction decreases doxorubicin‑induced cardiac apoptosis by regulating the TREM1/NF‑κB signaling pathway

Shengxian decoction (SXT) is a traditional Chinese medicine that is clinically used for treating cardiovascular diseases. It is known for its beneficial effect on cardiomyocyte injuries, some of which can be induced by anticancer agents including doxorubicin (DOX). To determine the molecular mechanisms involved in the cardioprotective effects of SXT, DOX‑induced H9c2 cells were analyzed for apoptosis and expression levels of apoptosis biomarkers. Cell viability and apoptosis were measured by CCK‑8 and flow cytometry. Triggering receptors expressed on myeloid cells 1 (TREM1), cleaved caspase‑3, survivin and NF‑κBp65 expression levels were measured by reverse transcription‑quantitative PCR and/or western blotting. A total of 30 adult male Sprague‑Dawley rats were randomly allocated into five groups (n=6 each); control group receiving 0.9% saline, 1 DOX group receiving 2.5 mg/kg of DOX and 3 DOX + SXT groups, receiving a DOX dose equivalent to the DOX‑only group and either 0.4, 0.8 or 1.6 g/kg of SXT. It was found that DOX increased apoptosis and NF‑κB activation of H9c2 cells by increasing TREM1 expression and that SXT inhibited apoptosis and NF‑κB activation of H9c2 cells induced by DOX or Trem1 overexpression. SXT also significantly reversed DOX‑induced cardiotoxicity in rats. The results suggested that the protective effects of SXT against DOX‑induced apoptosis may be attributed to its downregulation of TREM1.

Resveratrol protects against myocardial ischemic injury via the inhibition of NF‑κB‑dependent inflammation and the enhancement of antioxidant defenses

Resveratrol (RES) is a natural phenol which possesses multiple pharmacological actions. The present study aimed to determine whether RES protects against myocardial ischemic injury in association with the inhibition of NF‑κB‑dependent inflammation and the enhancement of antioxidant defenses in mice following acute myocardial infarction (AMI). Male C57/BL mice were randomly assigned to 3 groups as follows: The sham‑operated (sham) group, AMI + vehicle group and AMI + RES group. Rat H9C2 cells were also used to examine the effects of RES on hypoxia‑induced oxidative injury in vitro. Redox homeostasis in the mouse myocardium and rat H9C2 cells was determined post‑treatment. The mRNA and protein levels of phosphorylated (p‑)IκB kinase (p‑IKK), p‑nuclear factor (NF)‑κB p65, interleukin (IL)‑1β, IL‑6, nerve growth factor (NGF) and insulin‑like growth factor‑1 (IGF‑1) were measured by RT‑qPCR and western blot analysis. It was found that RES slightly protected the myocardium against ischemic injury in mice, while it prevented the hypoxia‑induced apoptosis of H9C2 cells. RES decreased the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and enhanced the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx). RES also downregulated the protein and/or mRNA levels of p‑IKK, p‑NF‑κB p65, IL‑1β, IL‑6, NGF and IGF‑1 at 7 and 28 days after infarction. On the whole, these data indicate that RES protects the myocardium against ischemic injury in association with the inhibition of oxidative stress and inflammatory responses. Thus, RES has the potential to be used as an adjunctive therapeutic drug for heart diseases.

Helichrysetin and TNF‑α synergistically promote apoptosis by inhibiting overactivation of the NF‑κB and EGFR signaling pathways in HeLa and T98G cells

Tumor necrosis factor‑α (TNF‑α) has different effects on apoptosis depending on activation or inactivation of the nuclear factor‑κB (NF‑κB) and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling pathways. Helichrysetin, a natural chalcone, inhibits NF‑κB nuclear translocation in mouse pancreatic β cells. The present study aimed to identify the effect of helichrysetin on activation of the NF‑κB and EGFR signaling pathways induced by TNF‑α, and the synergistic effect of helichrysetin and TNF‑α on apoptosis of HeLa and T98G cells. Cell proliferation was measured by Cell Counting Kit‑8 assay, while apoptosis was measured by Hoechst 33258 and Annexin V/PI staining. NF‑κB activity was detected by luciferase assay, protein expression was measured by western blotting and mRNA expression was detected by quantitative PCR assay. The results revealed that in HeLa and T98G cells helichrysetin blocked the increased phosphorylation of NF‑κB p65 induced by TNF‑α. Although helichrysetin alone decreased cell viability, helichrysetin and TNF‑α synergistically decreased cell viability. Helichrysetin, not TNF‑α, promoted apoptosis, while the combination of helichrysetin and TNF‑α synergistically increased apoptosis. In addition, helichrysetin and TNF‑α synergistically enhanced the activation of caspase‑3 and poly‑(ADP‑ribose)‑polymerase compared with helichrysetin alone. Helichrysetin inhibited the phosphorylation of transforming growth factor‑β activated kinase (TAK1), IκB kinase‑α/β (IKK‑α/β), NF‑κB p65 and EGFR induced by TNF‑α. Consistent with the inhibition of NF‑κB activation, the increased TNF‑α‑induced mRNA expression levels of TNF‑α, IL‑1β, CCL2, CCL5 and CXCL10 were significantly downregulated by helichrysetin. Therefore, helichrysetin and TNF‑α synergistically promoted apoptosis by inhibiting TAK1/IKK/NF‑κB and TAK1/EGFR signaling pathways in HeLa and T98G cells, indicating a potential therapeutic strategy for cancer.

Quercetin reverses TNF‑α induced osteogenic damage to human periodontal ligament stem cells by suppressing the NF‑κB/NLRP3 inflammasome pathway

Quercetin (Quer) is a typical antioxidant flavonoid from plants that is involved in bone metabolism, as well as in the progression of inflammatory diseases. Elevated levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), a typical pro-inflammatory cytokine, can affect osteogenesis. In the present study, TNF-α was used to establish an in vitro model of periodontitis. The effects of Quer on, as well as its potential role in the osteogenic response of human periodontal ligament stem cells (hPDLSCs) under TNF-α-induced inflammatory conditions and the underlying mechanisms were then investigated. Within the appropriate concentration range, Quer did not exhibit any cytotoxicity. More importantly, Quer significantly attenuated the TNF-α induced the suppression of osteogenesis-related genes and proteins, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and mineralized matrix in the hPDLSCs. These findings were associated with the fact that Quer inhibited the activation of the NF-κB signaling pathway, as well as the expression of NLRP3 inflammation-associated proteins in the inflammatory microenvironment. Moreover, the silencing of NLRP3 by small interfering RNA (siRNA) was found to protect the hPDLSCs against TNF-α-induced osteogenic damage, which was in accordance with the effects of Quer. On the whole, the present study demonstrates that Quer reduces the impaired osteogenesis of hPDLSCs under TNF-α-induced inflammatory conditions by inhibiting the NF-κB/NLRP3 inflammasome pathway. Thus, Quer may prove to be a potential remedy against periodontal bone defects.

1,7‑Bis(4‑hydroxy‑3‑methoxyphenyl)‑1,4,6‑heptatrien‑3‑one alleviates lipopolysaccharide‑induced inflammation by targeting NF‑κB translocation in murine macrophages and it interacts with MD2 in silico

Trienones are curcuminoid analogues and are minor constituents in the rhizomes of numerous Curcuma plant species. Studies investigating the biological activities of trienones, particularly their anti‑inflammatory activities, are limited. In the present study, the trienone 1,7‑bis(4‑hydroxy‑3‑methoxyphenyl)‑1,4,6‑heptatrien‑3‑one (HMPH) was structurally modified from curcumin using a novel and concise method. HMPH was shown to exhibit potential anti‑inflammatory effects on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)‑activated RAW264.7 macrophages. Furthermore, LPS‑induced nitric oxide secretion in RAW264.7 cells was markedly and dose‑dependently inhibited by HMPH; in addition, HMPH had a greater efficacy compared with curcumin. This inhibition was accompanied by the suppression of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase‑2 expression, as well as pro‑inflammatory cytokine secretion. To elucidate the molecular mechanism underlying the anti‑inflammatory effects of HMPH, the effects of this compound on nuclear factor‑κB (NF‑κB) translocation were assessed. HMPH significantly inhibited the translocation of p65 NF‑κB into the nucleus to a greater extent than curcumin, thus indicating that HMPH has more potent anti‑inflammatory activity than curcumin. In addition, an in silico modelling study revealed that HMPH possessed stronger binding energy to myeloid differentiation factor 2 (MD2) compared with that of curcumin, and indicated that the anti‑inflammatory effects of HMPH may be through upstream inhibition of the inflammatory pathway. In conclusion, HMPH may be considered a promising compound for reducing inflammation via targeting p65 NF‑κB translocation and interfering with MD2 binding.

Gryllus bimaculatus extract protects against lipopolysaccharide and palmitate-induced production of proinflammatory cytokines and inflammasome formation

Inflammation and the inflammasome complex formation are associated with numerous diseases, and palmitates or lipopolysaccharides (LPS) have been identified as potential links between these disorders. Recently, edible insects such as the Gryllus bimaculatus (GB) and the larva of Tenebrio molitor have emerged as alternative food sources. In the present study, the effect of GB on LPS- or palmitate-induced production of inflammatory cytokines, the formation of the inflammasome complex, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and cell death was investigated in RAW264.7 cells. The results revealed that GB extract downregulated the production of inflammatory cytokines (such as TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6). Since the role of the MAP kinase and NF-κB signalling pathways in the production of inflammatory cytokines is well established, the translocation of p65 into the nucleus and the phosphorylation of IκB and MAP kinases were further examined. Both these processes were upregulated following LPS and palmitate treatment, but they were inhibited by the GB extract. Moreover, GB extract decreased LPS/palmitate-induced inflammasome complex formation (assessed via analysing the levels of the apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a caspase-recruitment domain, NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3, cleaved caspase-1 and IL-1β), the generation of ROS, ER stress and cell death. Treatment with SB203580 (a p38 inhibitor), SP600125 (a JNK inhibitor) and pyrrolidinedithiocarbamate ammonium (an NF-κB inhibitor) decreased the production of inflammatory cytokines, as well as helped in the recovery of LPS/palmitate-induced cell death. Overall, GB extract served an inhibitory role in LPS/palmitate-induced inflammation via inhibiting the MAP kinase and NF-κB signalling pathways, inflammasome complex formation, ROS generation, ER stress and cell death.

Allisartan isoproxil attenuates oxidative stress and inflammation through the SIRT1/Nrf2/NF‑κB signalling pathway in diabetic cardiomyopathy rats

Allisartan isoproxil is a new nonpeptide angiotensin II receptor blocker (ARB) precursor drug that is used to treat hypertension and reduce the risk of heart disease. The present study explored the effects of allisartan isoproxil on diabetic cardiomyopathy (DCM) and revealed the roles of hyperglycaemia-induced oxidative stress and inflammation. A rat DCM model was established by high-fat diet feeding in combination with intraperitoneal injection of streptozocin. Echocardiographs showed that diabetic rats exhibited significantly decreased cardiac function. Troponin T (cTnT) and B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) were significantly increased in DCM rats as obtained by ELISA. Allisartan isoproxil significantly improved the EF% and E™/A™ ratio. Histopathologic staining showed that allisartan isoproxil prevented histological alterations, attenuated the accumulation of collagen, and ameliorated cTnT and BNP levels. Western blot and immunohistochemical results indicated that the expression levels of silent information regulator 2 homologue 1 (SIRT1) and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) were decreased in the hearts of diabetic rats, and antioxidant defences were also decreased. In addition, allisartan isoproxil decreased the expression of NF-κB p65 and the inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β which were determined by reverse transcription-quantitative PCR in the diabetic heart. Western blotting and TUNEL staining results also showed that cardiac Bax and cleaved caspase-3 and the number of apoptotic myocardial cells were increased in the diabetic heart and decreased following treatment with allisartan isoproxil. In conclusion, the present results indicated that allisartan isoproxil alleviated DCM by attenuating diabetes-induced oxidative stress and inflammation through the SIRT1/Nrf2/NF-κB signalling pathway.

Elevation of hypertonicity‑induced protein NFAT5 promotes apoptosis of human umbilical vein endothelial cells through the NF‑κB pathway

Abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) is a great threat to the health of elder (>50 years old) individuals. High salt intake is considered to raise the risk of AAA but the underlying mechanism remains to be elucidated. As endothelial dysfunction in the abdominal aorta is strongly associated with AAA, the present study hypothesized that high salt led to AAA by inducing apoptosis of endothelial cells. The present study verified that hypertonic medium with excess sodium chloride induced apoptosis of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), a commonly used cell model to study aortic endothelial cells. Further mechanism studies suggested that hypertonic conditions elevated the expression of nuclear factor of activated T cells 5 (NFAT5) and a high level of NFAT5 was capable of inducing apoptosis of HUVECs. In the investigation of downstream signals of NFAT5, it was identified that either hypertonic conditions or NFAT5 overexpression promoted the activity of NF‑κB signaling pathway and subsequently suppressed the expression of anti‑apoptotic protein Bcl‑2. Thus, the present study demonstrated a novel mechanism by which high salt induced apoptosis of endothelial cells by enhancing the NFAT5‑NF‑κB signaling pathway. These findings will extend our knowledge about the pathogenesis of AAA and provide potential drug targets for the treatment of AAA.