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Kulinkina AV, Kosinski KC, Liss A, Adjei MN, Ayamgah GA, Webb P, Gute DM, Plummer JD, Naumova EN. Piped water consumption in Ghana: A case study of temporal and spatial patterns of clean water demand relative to alternative water sources in rural small towns. Sci Total Environ 2016; 559:291-301. [PMID: 27070382 PMCID: PMC4863652 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.03.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2015] [Revised: 03/16/2016] [Accepted: 03/20/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Continuous access to adequate quantities of safe water is essential for human health and socioeconomic development. Piped water systems (PWSs) are an increasingly common type of water supply in rural African small towns. We assessed temporal and spatial patterns in water consumption from public standpipes of four PWSs in Ghana in order to assess clean water demand relative to other available water sources. Low water consumption was evident in all study towns, which manifested temporally and spatially. Temporal variability in water consumption that is negatively correlated with rainfall is an indicator of rainwater preference when it is available. Furthermore, our findings show that standpipes in close proximity to alternative water sources such as streams and hand-dug wells suffer further reductions in water consumption. Qualitative data suggest that consumer demand in the study towns appears to be driven more by water quantity, accessibility, and perceived aesthetic water quality, as compared to microbiological water quality or price. In settings with chronic under-utilization of improved water sources, increasing water demand through household connections, improving water quality with respect to taste and appropriateness for laundry, and educating residents about health benefits of using piped water should be prioritized. Continued consumer demand and sufficient revenue generation are important attributes of a water service that ensure its function over time. Our findings suggest that analyzing water consumption of existing metered PWSs in combination with qualitative approaches may enable more efficient planning of community-based water supplies and support sustainable development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra V. Kulinkina
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, 200 College Avenue, Medford, Massachusetts, USA 02155
| | - Karen C. Kosinski
- Department of Community Health, Tufts University, 574 Boston Avenue, Medford, Massachusetts, USA 02155
| | - Alexander Liss
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, 200 College Avenue, Medford, Massachusetts, USA 02155
| | | | | | - Patrick Webb
- Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy, Tufts University, 150 Harrison Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts, USA 02111
| | - David M. Gute
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, 200 College Avenue, Medford, Massachusetts, USA 02155
| | - Jeanine D. Plummer
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 100, Institute Road, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA 01609
| | - Elena N. Naumova
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, 200 College Avenue, Medford, Massachusetts, USA 02155
- Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy, Tufts University, 150 Harrison Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts, USA 02111
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