Effects of exercise induced muscle damage on cardiovascular responses to isometric muscle contractions and post-exercise circulatory occlusion

PURPOSE

The aim of the present study was to investigate whether exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) influences cardiovascular responses to isometric exercise and post-exercise circulatory occlusion (PECO). We hypothesized that EIMD would increase muscle afferent sensitivity and, accordingly, increase blood pressure responses to exercise and PECO.

METHODS

Eleven male and nine female participants performed unilateral isometric knee extension at 30% of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) for 3-min. A thigh cuff was rapidly inflated to 250 mmHg for two min PECO, followed by 3 min recovery. Heart rate and blood pressure were monitored beat-by-beat, with stroke volume and cardiac output estimated from the Modelflow algorithm. Measurements were taken before and 48 h after completing eccentric knee-extension contractions to induce muscle damage (EIMD).

RESULTS

EIMD caused 21% decrease in MVC (baseline: 634.6 ± 229.3 N, 48 h: 504.0 ± 160 N), and a 17-fold increase in perceived soreness using a visual-analogue scale (0-100 mm; VASSQ) (both p < 0.001). CV responses to exercise and PECO were not different between pre and post EIMD. However, mean arterial pressure (MAP) was higher during the recovery phase after EIMD (p < 0.05). Significant associations were found between increases in MAP during exercise and VASSQ, Rate of Perceived Exertion (RPE) and Pain after EIMD only (all p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The MAP correlations with muscle soreness, RPE and Pain during contractions of damaged muscles suggests that higher afferent activity was associated with higher MAP responses to exercise.

Training Load and Current Soreness Predict Future Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness in Collegiate Female Soccer Athletes

Background

Delayed onset muscles soreness (DOMS) is an indication of muscle stress and trauma that develops from excessive musculoskeletal loads. Musculoskeletal loads can be measured with wearable devices, but there is limited research on specific training load metrics that most correlate with DOMS after activity.

Purpose

To determine the predictive capabilities of training load variables on the development of lower extremity DOMS in female collegiate soccer athletes throughout an entire season.

Study Design

Prospective Cohort.

Methods

Twenty-seven collegiate female soccer athletes reported their lower extremity DOMS each day prior to all soccer activity. Participants wore Polar heart rate and global positioning monitors to capture training load measures. Pearson correlation coefficients were used to assess the relationships between the training load variables and change in DOMS when collapsed across dates. Separate linear mixed models were performed with the following day's DOMS as the outcome variable, training load and the current day's DOMS as predictor variables, and participants serving as random intercepts.

Results

All training load variables significantly predicted change in DOMS, with number of decelerations (ρ=0.72, p <0.001), minutes spent at greater than 80% of maximum heart rate (HRmax) (ρ=0.71 , p <0.001), and distance (ρ=0.70 , p <0.001) best correlating with change in DOMS. Linear mixed models revealed a significant interaction of all training load and current day's DOMS on the following day's DOMS (p<0.001), but number of decelerations, HRmax, and total number of accelerations demonstrated the highest coefficient of determination (R2 marginal=33.2% - 29.2% , R2 conditional= 46.9% - 44.8%).

Conclusions

Training load variables paired with the current day's DOMS significantly predict lower extremity DOMS in the future, with number of decelerations, accelerations, and HRmax best predicting future DOMS. Although this demonstrates that training load variables predict lower extremity DOMS, future research should incorporate objective measures of strength or jump kinetics to identify if similar relationships exist.

Level of Evidence

Level 3.

Relationships between external loads, sRPE-load, and self-reported soreness across a men's collegiate soccer season

The purpose was to examine relationships between external loads (ELs), perceived exertion, and soreness. Collegiate men soccer players (n = 19) were monitored for 72 sessions (training: n = 53; matches: n = 19). Likert scale assessments (0-6) of lower body soreness were collected prior to each session, and ELs were collected using positional monitoring technology. Session rate of perceived exertion (sRPE-load) was calculated by multiplying perceived exertion values (Borg CR-10 Scale) by respective session duration to determine internal load. Multiple analyses of variance were used to determine differences in ELs across seasons (pre-season, in-season, post-season) and sessions (training, match). Bivariate Pearson correlation coefficients and linear regression analyses were used to evaluate relationships among soreness, ELs, and sRPE-load. Greatest ELs were observed during pre-season and post-season phases (p < 0.001). Sessions with high perceived exertion and low soreness were associated with higher ELs (p < 0.05). Duration (t = 16.13), total distance (t = 9.17), sprint distance (t = 7.54), player load (t = 4.22), top speed (t = 4.69), and acceleration (t = 2.02) positively predicted sRPE-load (F = 412.9, p < 0.001, R2 = 0.75). Soreness was weakly and trivially correlated with ELs (p < 0.05). The very strong relationship between ELs and sRPE-load highlights the utility of sRPE-load as a practical means to estimate workload; however, more research into the relationship between soreness and workload is warranted.

The efficacy of intermittent pneumatic compression and negative pressure therapy on muscle function, soreness and serum indices of muscle damage: a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

The study aimed to assess whether intermittent pneumatic compression (IPC) and intermittent negative pressure (INP) would attenuate the muscle damaging effects of eccentric exercise.

METHODS

Forty-five healthy males were recruited. Immediately post, 24 and 48 h post eccentric exercise consisting of 100 drop jumps, volunteers randomly received 30-min sessions of intermittent pneumatic compression (IPC, n = 15) or intermittent negative pressure (INP, n = 15), or sham microcurrent (PT, n = 15). Creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), isokinetic muscle strength, soreness and active flexion of the knee joint were measured after every therapy session.

RESULTS

No significant intergroup differences were observed in biochemical or functional measurements. However, there was an increase in muscle soreness (P < 0.05), CK and LDH activity (P < 0.05), and a reduction in muscle strength (P < 0.05) and range of active knee flexion (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The prescription of IPC and INP did not attenuate the reduction of markers to muscle function or pain perception up to 48 h after muscle damaging exercise. Future research should focus on the potential impact of treatment frequency and duration on muscle recovery. Trial registration The study was retrospectively registered in the Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry (ANZCTR); The trial registration number: ACTRN12621001294842; date of registration: 24/09/2021.

Evaluating soreness symptoms of fibromyalgia: Establishment and validation of the Revised Fibromyalgia Impact Questionnaire with Integration of Soreness Assessment

BACKGROUND

Fibromyalgia is a chronic disorder characterized by widespread musculoskeletal pain. A common complaint is soreness. However, until now, no assessment tool is available to address soreness and evaluate its impact on disease severity. We aimed to establish a questionnaire for soreness assessment and to evaluate its validity in fibromyalgia patients.

METHODS

Patients diagnosed with fibromyalgia per the American College of Rheumatology criteria (2011) were recruited. The Revised Fibromyalgia Impact Questionnaire with an integration of Soreness Assessment (FIQRS) was established by adding five items pertinent to soreness sensation to the existing FIQR. The participants were asked to evaluate their soreness symptoms by filling out the FIQRS twice. The test-retest reliability and internal consistency were assessed. Construct validity was evaluated by correlations with the FIQR and fibromyalgia symptom severity (SS) score.

RESULTS

Sixty-two patients with fibromyalgia were recruited, including 57 females (91.9%; mean age: 51.4 years). The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) of test-retest reliability was 0.92 for the FIQRS overall score. The Cronbach's α of all the items in the FIQRS was 0.93. The correlation coefficient of the FIQRS total score with the FIQR was 0.97 (p < 0.0001) and that with the fibromyalgia SS scale was 0.52 (p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSION

The FIQRS has good reliability and internal consistency for the assessment of disease impact on fibromyalgia patients, thus providing a reliable tool for soreness evaluation. Future studies are warranted for further validation regarding its correlation with other psychometric properties and life quality measurements.

Nutritional and Supplementation Strategies to Prevent and Attenuate Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage: a Brief Review

Exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) is typically caused by unaccustomed exercise and results in pain, soreness, inflammation, and reduced muscle function. These negative outcomes may cause discomfort and impair subsequent athletic performance or training quality, particularly in individuals who have limited time to recover between training sessions or competitions. In recent years, a multitude of techniques including massage, cryotherapy, and stretching have been employed to combat the signs and symptoms of EIMD, with mixed results. Likewise, many varied nutritional and supplementation interventions intended to treat EIMD-related outcomes have gained prominence in the literature. To date, several review articles have been published that explore the many recovery strategies purported to minimize indirect markers of muscle damage. However, these articles are very limited from a nutritional standpoint. Thus, the purpose of this review is to briefly and comprehensively summarize many of these strategies that have been shown to positively influence the recovery process after damaging exercise. These strategies have been organized into the following sections based on nutrient source: fruits and fruit-derived supplements, vegetables and plant-derived supplements, herbs and herbal supplements, amino acid and protein supplements, vitamin supplements, and other supplements.

Sensing acidosis: nociception or sngception?

Background

Sensing tissue acidosis is an important function of the somatosensory nervous system to response to noxious stimuli.

Main body

In the pain clinic, acid or soreness sensation is a characteristic sensory phenotype of various acute and chronic pain syndromes, such as delayed onset muscle soreness, fibromyalgia, and radicular pain. However, soreness sensation is a sign of successful analgesia for acupuncture and noxipoint therapy. Thus, the nature of acid or soreness sensation is not always nociceptive (or painful) and could be anti-nociceptive. To facilitate the investigation of the molecular and neurobiological mechanisms of soreness sensation, we propose a concept called “sngception (sng- ception)” to describe the response of the somatosensory nervous system to sense tissue acidosis and to distinguish it from nociception. “Sng” is a Taiwanese word that represents the state of soreness while at the same time imitates the natural vocalization of humans feeling sore.

Conclusion

Here we propose sngception as a specific somatosensory function that transmits the acid sensation from the peripheral to the central nervous system. Sngception could partially overlap with nociception, but it could also transmit antinociception, proprioception, and pruriception.

The development of skeletal muscle hypertrophy through resistance training: the role of muscle damage and muscle protein synthesis

Resistance training (RT)-induced skeletal muscle hypertrophy is a highly intricate process. Despite substantial advances, we are far from understanding exactly how muscle hypertrophy develops during RT. The aim of the present review is to discuss new insights related to the role of skeletal muscle damage and muscle protein synthesis (MPS) in mediating RT-induced hypertrophy. Specifically, the thesis that in the early phase of RT (≤ 4 previous RT sessions) increases in muscle cross-sectional area are mostly attributable to muscle damage-induced muscle swelling; then (after ~ 10 sessions), a modest magnitude of muscle hypertrophy ensues; but only during a latter phase of RT (after ~ 18 sessions) is true muscle hypertrophy observed. We argue that the initial increases in MPS post-RT are likely directed to muscle repair and remodelling due to damage, and do not correlate with eventual muscle hypertrophy induced by several RT weeks. Increases in MPS post-RT session only contribute to muscle hypertrophy after a progressive attenuation of muscle damage, and even more significantly when damage is minimal. Furthermore, RT protocols that do not promote significant muscle damage still induce similar muscle hypertrophy and strength gains compared to conditions that do promote initial muscle damage. Thus, we conclude that muscle damage is not the process that mediates or potentiates RT-induced muscle hypertrophy.

9- and 13-Hydroxy-octadecadienoic acids (9+13 HODE) are inversely related to granulocyte colony stimulating factor and IL-6 in runners after 2h running

This study utilized a pro-inflammatory exercise mode to explore potential linkages between increases in 9- and 13-hydroxy-octadecadienoic acid (9+13 HODE) and biomarkers for inflammation, oxidative stress, and muscle damage. Male (N=10) and female (N=10) runners ran at ∼70% VO2max for 1.5h followed by 30min of downhill running (-10%). Blood samples were taken pre-run and immediately-, 1-h-, and 24-h post-run, and analyzed for 9+13 HODE, F2-isoprostanes, six cytokines, C-reactive protein (CRP), creatine kinase (CK), and myoglobin (MYO). Gender groups performed at comparable relative heart rate and oxygen consumption levels during the 2-h run. All outcome measures increased post-run (time effects, P⩽0.001), with levels near pre-run levels by 24h except for CRP, CK, MYO, and delayed onset of muscle soreness (DOMS). Plasma 9+13 HODE increased 314±38.4% post-run (P<0.001), 77.3±15.8% 1-h post-run (P<0.001), and 40.6±16.4% 24-h post-exercise (P=0.024), and F2-isoprostanes increased 50.8±8.9% post-run (P<0.001) and 19.0±5.3% 1-h post-run (P=0.006). Post-run increases were comparable between genders for all outcomes except for 9+13 HODE (interaction effect, P=0.024, post-run tending higher in females), IL-10 (P=0.006, females lower), and DOMS (P=0.029, females lower). The pre-to-post-run increase in 9+13 HODEs was not related to other outcomes except for plasma granulocyte colony stimulating factor (GCSF) (r=-0.710, P<0.001) and IL-6 (r=-0.457, P=0.043). Within the context of this study, exercise-induced increases in 9+13 HODEs tended higher in females, and were not related to increases in F2-isoprostanes, muscle damage, or soreness. The negative relationships to GCSF and IL-6 suggest a linkage between 9+13 HODES and exercise-induced neutrophil chemotaxis, degranulation, and inflammation.

Effects of whole body vibration on muscle contractile properties in exercise induced muscle damaged females

Determining muscle contractile properties following exercise is critical in understanding neuromuscular function. Following high intensity training, individuals often experience exercise induced muscle damage (EIMD). The purpose of this investigation was to determine the effect of whole-body vibration (WBV) on muscle contractile properties following EIMD. Twenty-seven females volunteered for 7 sessions and were randomly assigned to a treatment or control group. Muscle contractile properties were assessed via voluntary torque (VT), peak twitch torque (TT), time to reach peak torque, half relaxation time of twitch torque, percent activation (%ACT), rate of rise (RR), rate of decline (RD), mean and peak electromyography during maximum voluntary isometric contraction. Two testing sets were collected each day, consisting of pre measures followed by WBV or control and post measures. A mixed factor analysis of variance was conducted for each variable. %ACT measures found baseline being less than day 1 in both measures in the control group. TT was found to be greater in the control group compared to WBV group. TT and VT baseline measures were greater than all other time points. RR showed control group had higher values than WBV group. These results indicate that WBV following EIMD had some positive effects on muscle contractile properties.

Acute Effects of Enhanced Eccentric and Concentric Resistance Exercise on Metabolism and Inflammation

This study compared the metabolic, cardiopulmonary and inflammatory responses of novel acute machine based concentrically-focused resistance exercise (CON RX) and eccentrically-focused resistance exercise (ECC RX). Twenty healthy adults (26.8 ± 5.9 yrs; 25.4 ± 4.0 kg/m²) performed two work-matched RX exercise sessions. Cardiopulmonary responses, rating of perceived exertion (RPE), soreness, oxygen consumption; (VO2) were collected during each session. Blood lactate and levels of inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1 alpha (IL1α), interleukin-6 (IL6) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFα) were analyzed pre, post ad 24 hours post-exercise. HR were higher (5-15bpm) during ECC RX (p<.05). Soreness ratings were consistently higher post-ECC RX compared to CON RX. VO2 area under the curve was higher during ECC than CON (31,905 ml/kg/min vs 25,864 ml/kg/min; p<.0001). Post-ECC RX, TNFα levels increased compared to CON RX 23.2 ± 23.9% versus 6.3 ± 16.2% ( p=.021). ECC RX induced greater metabolic, cardiopulmonary and soreness responses compared to matched CON RX. This may be due to recruitment of additional stabilizer muscles and metabolic stress during the ECC RX. These factors should be considered when designing ECC RX programs particularly for untrained persons, older adults or those with history of cardiovascular disease.

Short and longer-term effects of creatine supplementation on exercise induced muscle damage

The purpose of this investigation was to determine if creatine supplementation assisted with reducing the amount of exercise induced muscle damage and if creatine supplementation aided in recovery from exercise induced muscle damage. Two groups of subjects (group 1 = creatine; group 2 = placebo) participated in an eccentric exercise protocol following 7 and 30 days of creatine or placebo supplementation (20 g.d(-1) for 7 d followed by 6g.d(-1) for 23 d = 30 d). Prior to the supplementation period, measurements were obtained for maximal dynamic strength, maximal isometric force, knee range of motion, muscle soreness, and serum levels of creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). Following 7 days of creatine supplementation, on day 8, subjects began consuming 6 g.d(-1) of creatine for 23 days. Additionally on days 8 and 31, subjects performed an eccentric exercise protocol using the knee extensors to induce muscle damage. Indirect markers of muscle damage, including maximal isometric force, knee range of motion, muscle soreness, and serum levels of CK and LDH, were collected at 12, 24, and 48 hours following each exercise bout. The results indicated that acute bouts of creatine have no effect on indirect markers of muscle damage for the acute (7 days) bout. However, maximal isometric force was greater for the creatine group versus placebo for the chronic (30 days) bout. This suggests that the ergogenic effect of creatine following 30 days of supplementation may have a positive impact on exercise induced muscle damage. Key pointsEccentric muscle actions highly associated with exercise induced muscle damage.Creatine supplementation has ergogenic effect to increase protein synthesis.Creatine supplementation does not attenuate exercise induced muscle damage with short term supplementation (7 days).Increased maximal isometric force seen with creatine supplementation after 30 days following exercise induced muscle damage.Ergogenic effect of creatine supplementation may contribute to reduced exercise induced muscle damage.