How is GPS used? Understanding navigation system use and its relation to spatial ability

Given how commonly GPS is now used in everyday navigation, it is surprising how little research has been dedicated to investigating variations in its use and how such variations may relate to navigation ability. The present study investigated general GPS dependence, how people report using GPS in various navigational scenarios, and the relationship between these measures and spatial abilities (assessed by self-report measures and the ability to learn the layout of a novel environment). GPS dependence is an individual's perceived need to use GPS in navigation, and GPS usage is the frequency with which they report using different functions of GPS. The study also assessed whether people modulate reported use of GPS as a function of their familiarity with the location in which they are navigating. In 249 participants over two preregistered studies, reported GPS dependence was negatively correlated with objective navigation performance and self-reported sense of direction, and positively correlated with spatial anxiety. Greater reported use of GPS for turn-by-turn directions was associated with a poorer sense of direction and higher spatial anxiety. People reported using GPS most frequently for time and traffic estimation, regardless of ability. Finally, people reported using GPS less, regardless of ability, when they were more familiar with an environment. Collectively these findings suggest that people moderate their use of GPS, depending on their knowledge, ability, and confidence in their own abilities, and often report using GPS to augment rather than replace spatial environmental knowledge.

Individual differences in emerging adults' spatial abilities: What role do affective factors play?

Spatial ability is defined as a cognitive or intellectual skill used to represent, transform, generate, and recall information of an object or the environment. Individual differences across spatial tasks have been strongly linked to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) interest and success. Several variables have been proposed to explain individual differences in spatial ability, including affective factors such as one's confidence and anxiety. However, research is lacking on whether affective variables such as confidence and anxiety relate to individual differences in both a mental rotation task (MRT) and a perspective-taking and spatial orientation task (PTSOT). Using a sample of 100 college students completing introductory STEM courses, the present study investigated the effects of self-reported spatial confidence, spatial anxiety, and general anxiety on MRT and PTSOT. Spatial confidence, after controlling for effects of general anxiety and biological sex, was significantly related to performance on both the MRT and PTSOT. Spatial anxiety, after controlling for effects of general anxiety and biological sex, was not related to either PTSOT or MRT scores. Together these findings suggest some affective factors, but not others, contribute to spatial ability performance to a degree that merits advanced investigation in future studies.

Navigational experience affect cognition: Spatial learning capabilities in captive and wild-born tuco-tucos

There is a growing recognition of the influence of both genetic and ecological context in shaping different cognitive traits. The hippocampal region is identified as a critical area for memory and learning in mammals, susceptible to modification by environmental influences. Although previous studies have identified the effects of various factors on cognitive parameters during early development, comparatively few research was conducted on wild species to analyze the role of natural environmental stimuli in the formation of spatial learning and memory abilities. Thus, to assess the importance of exposure to a complex and challenging environment during early development, we compared spatial learning performance of captive-born tuco-tucos with previous data obtained in our laboratory from wild-born adult tuco-tucos. The results showed that wild-born individuals learned faster, requiring less time to complete a labyrinth and making fewer errors than those who had no experience in their natural environment. These findings underscore the importance of considering ecological factors in understanding the evolution of brains and cognitive abilities.

Persistent gender differences in spatial ability, even in STEM experts

Background

Spatial ability (SA) shows wide variability. One proposed explanation for the observed individual difference in SA is variability in interest and engagement in activities that promote spatial ability. Research also robustly shown that males on average outperform females in most aspects of SA. Previous studies have identified a number of activities that can potentially contribute to both individual and gender differences in SA, including tinkering with electronics, particular sports activities, and designing. However, the findings regarding these links are inconsistent. One way to investigate these links is to compare the groups that are intensively engaged with these activities.

Aim

The present study aims to evaluate the robustness of these links by comparing SA in adolescents with expertise in STEM, arts, and sports, with their unselected peers. We also aimed to assess whether gender differences in SA are still present in expert groups.

Methods

The data on ten small-scale SA tests was collected in an unselected sample of adolescents (N = 864, Mean age = 15.4, SD = 1.1); as well as in 3 samples of adolescents with expertise in STEM (N = 667, Mean age = 15, SD = 1.2); in Arts (N = 280, Mean age = 15, SD = 1.2) and in Sports (N = 444, Mean age = 14.3, SD = 0.7).

Results

Out of the three expert groups, only STEM experts on average outperformed the unselected group on all SA tasks. The STEM experts also outperformed Arts and Sports experts. Gender differences persisted in all expert groups, with moderate effect sizes.

Discussion

Findings support previously established links between spatial ability and STEM-related expertise. In contrast, such links were not found for expertise in arts and sports. Consistent with previous research, we found gender differences in SA for all samples, which persisted in STEM experts.

Individually tuned theta HD-tACS improves spatial performance

BACKGROUND

Using transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) to improve visuospatial working memory (vsWM) has received considerable attention over the past few years. However, fundamental issues remain, such as the optimal frequency, the generality of behavioral effects, and the anatomical specificity of stimulation.

OBJECTIVES

Here we examined the effects of two theory-driven tACS protocols for improving vsWM on behavioral and electroencephalogram (EEG) measures.

METHODS

Twenty adults each completed 3 HD-tACS conditions (Tuned, Slow, and Sham) on two separate days. The Tuned condition refers to a situation in which the frequency of tACS is tuned to individual theta peak measured during a vsWM task. By contrast, the frequency was fixed to 4 Hz in the Slow condition. A high-definition tACS was deployed to target smaller frontal and parietal regions for increasing their phase-locking values. During each tACS condition, participants performed vsWM, mental rotation (MR), and arithmetic tasks. Resting-state EEG (rs-EEG) was recorded before and after each condition.

RESULTS

Compared with Sham, Tuned but not Slow improved both vsWM and MR but not arithmetics. The rs-EEG recording showed an increased fronto-parietal synchrony for Tuned, and this increase in synchronicity was correlated with the behavioral improvement. A follow-up study showed no behavioral improvement in Tuned with an anti-phase setting.

CONCLUSION

We provide the first evidence that simulating right fronto-parietal network with the tuned frequency increases the interregional synchronicity and improves performance on two spatial tasks. The results provide insight into the structure of spatial abilities as well as suggestions for stimulating the fronto-parietal network.

The practice of speleology: What is its relationship with spatial abilities?

Given the evidence of motor and exploring activities being related to spatial abilities on different scales, the present study considers the case of speleology, a peculiar underground exploratory activity. The relation of this practice with spatial abilities was examined. The study compares a group of expert speleologists (18), a group with a reduced amount of experience in speleology (19 novice speleologists), and a group with a similar amount of practice but in the outdoors (19 experts mountaineers). Group differences will be investigated in terms of (i) small-scale spatial task performance (rotation-based and spatial working memory); (ii) large-scale environment learning (reproduced using verbal descriptions) asking participants to learn a path through a cave or up a mountain (in a counterbalanced order) and then to test their recall with true/false spatial questions and graphical representation tasks; and (iii) self-reports of wayfinding attitudes. The results of linear models showed that, after controlling for age, gender, years of education, and vocabulary scores, expert speleologists had greater mental rotation and perspective-taking abilities and less spatial anxiety than expert mountaineers, and the former performed the true/false questions better than the latter. It should be noted that participants who reported having guiding/path-finding experiences had greater accuracy in graphical representation performance and higher scores in attitude towards orientation. Overall, expertise in speleology is related to spatial abilities on different scales and might have a distinctive role in comparison with other motor practices, pointing to the potential value of examining speleology in the spatial cognition framework.

Which cognitive individual differences predict good Bayesian reasoning? Concurrent comparisons of underlying abilities

We know a lot about how to present Bayesian reasoning tasks in order to aid performance, but less about underlying individual differences that can account for interindividual variability on the same tasks. Such information would be useful for both theoretical and practical reasons. Two theoretical positions, ecological rationality and nested set views, generate multiple hypotheses about which individual difference traits should be most relevant as underlying Bayesian reasoning performance. However, because many of these traits are somewhat overlapping, testing variables in isolation can yield misleading results. The present research assesses Bayesian reasoning abilities in conjunction with multiple individual different measures. Across three experiments, Bayesian reasoning was best predicted by measures of numerical literacy and visuospatial ability, as opposed to several different measures of cognitive thinking dispositions/styles, ability to conceptually model set-theoretic relationships, or cognitive processing ability (working memory span). These results support an ecological rationality view of Bayesian reasoning, rather than nested sets views. There also was some predictive ability for the Cognitive Reflection Task, which was only partially due to the numeracy aspects of that instrument, and further work is needed to clarify if this is a distinct factor. We are now beginning to understand not only how to build Bayesian reasoning tasks, but also how to build good Bayesian reasoners.

Patient-centered oncosurgical planning with cancer models in subspecialty education

BACKGROUND

A fundamental aspect of oncosurgical planning in organ resections is the identification of feeder vessel details to preserve healthy organ tissue while fully resecting the tumors. The purpose of this study was to determine whether three-dimensional (3D) cancer case models of computed tomography (CT) images will assist resident-level trainees in making appropriate operative plans for organ resection surgery.

METHODS

This study was based on the perception of surgery residents who were presented with 5 different oncosurgical scenarios. A five-station carousel including cases of liver mass, stomach mass, annular pancreas, pelvic mass and mediastinal mass was formed for the study. The residents were required to compare their perception level of the cases with their CT images, and 3D models in terms of identifying the invasion of the mass, making differential diagnosis and preoperative planning stage.

RESULTS

All residents have given higher scores for models. 3D models provided better understanding of oncopathological anatomy and improved surgical planning. In all scenarios, 70-80% of the residents preferred the model for preoperative planning. For surgical choice, compared to the CT, the model provided a statistically significant difference in terms of visual assessment, such as tumor location, distal or proximal organotomy (p:0.009). In the evaluation of presacral mass, the perception of model was significantly better than the CT in terms of bone-foramen relationship of chondrosarcoma, its origin, geometric shape, localization, invasion, and surgical preference (p:0.004). The model statistically significantly provided help to evaluate and prepare the case together with the colleagues performing surgery (p:0.007). Commenting on the open-ended question, they stated that the tumor-vessel relationship was clearly demonstrated in the 3D model, which has been very useful.

CONCLUSIONS

With the help of 3D printing technology in this study, it is possible to implement and evaluate a well-structured real patient scenario setup in cancer surgery training. It can be used to improve the understanding of pathoanatomical changes of multidisciplinary oncologic cases. Namely, it is used in guiding the surgical strategy and determining whether patient-specific 3D models change pre-operative planning decisions made by surgeons in complex cancer mass surgical procedures.

Computer-assisted learning using the Cabri 3D for improving spatial ability and self- regulated learning

Spatial ability and self-regulated learning have broad implications for students. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the improvement of spatial ability and self-regulated learning of students who obtain computer-assisted learning using the 3D Cabri program. This quasi-experimental study with pre-test and post-test design involved 71 tenth grade high school students in Bandung, Indonesia. Furthermore, the experimental class obtained computer-aided learning using the Cabri 3D program, while the control obtained conventional learning using a scientific approach. The analysis discovered that (1) the improvement of students' spatial ability in the experimental class was better than those in the control class, (2) students of the experimental class achieved better spatial ability than those in the control class, (3) the improvement of students' self-regulated learning in the experimental class was better than those in the control class, and (4) students of the experimental class achieved better self-regulated learning than those in the control. These facts can help educators to consider the application of the Cabri 3D program in mathematics education in the future.

A computerized spatial orientation test

In three experiments, we compared performance on a paper-based perspective-taking task (the Spatial Orientation Test [SOT]; Hegarty & Waller, 2004) with performance on a computer-based version of the task. The computer-based version automates scoring angular errors, allows for different stimulus orders to be given to each participant, and allows for different testing time limits. In Experiment 1, the two media used different objects and mirror-image stimulus arrays in the two versions to mitigate the effects of memory for specific objects or responses. In Experiments 2 and 3, the two media used identical objects (also in a mirrored arrangement), to provide a more equivalent between-media comparison. We also substituted new objects for objects in the original version that had an inherent front/back (e.g., a car) and/or that were animate; directional or animate objects may add variance that is unrelated to perspective-taking ability. Experiment 3 used clarified instructions and a sample size sufficient to examine relatively small differences between the media as well as sex differences. Overall, the computer-based version produced performance that was similar to that of the paper-based version in terms of the rank-order of the participants. The new computer and paper versions of the SOT also had similar correlations with the Money Road Map test and the Santa Barbara Sense of Direction questionnaire, adding support to the claim that the computerized SOT is tapping into the same skill as the paper-based version. We provide a Java version of the new SOT, along with pdf files of instructions and practice stimuli, on the Open Science Framework website.

Human gender development

Human gender-related behavior/psychology is shaped by a developmental system that involves numerous influences interacting over time. Understanding of the full range of elements in the system and how they interact is currently incomplete. The available evidence suggests, however, that early exposure to testosterone, postnatal socialization, e.g., by parents and peers, and self-socialization related to cognitive understanding of gender are important elements. This article focuses on prenatal and early neonatal influences of testosterone on gender-related psychological/behavioral outcomes, and contextualizes these hormonal influences within an understanding of socialization influences. There is consistent evidence that early testosterone exposure influences childhood gender role behavior, including sex-typical toy play, as well as gender identity and sexual orientation. Evidence for similar hormonal influences on spatial ability and on traits related to autism, or autistic spectrum disorder, is inconsistent. Evidence from girls exposed to elevated testosterone prenatally suggests that they experience alterations in processes of external socialization, as well as self-socialization, and that these, along with early testosterone exposure, shape gender-related outcomes.

Spatial ability contributes to memory for delayed intentions

Most everyday activities involve delayed intentions referring to different event structures and timelines. Yet, past research has mostly considered prospective memory (PM) as a dual-task phenomenon in which the primary task to fulfill PM intentions is realized within an ongoing secondary task. We hypothesized that these simplified simulations of PM may have obscured the role of spatial relational processing that is functional to represent and meet the increased temporal demands in more complex PM scenarios involving multiple timelines. To test this spatiotemporal hypothesis, participants monitored four digital clocks, with PM deadlines referring either to the same clock (single-context condition) or different clocks (multiple-context condition), along with separate tests of spatial ability (mental rotation task) and executive functioning (working memory updating). We found that performance in the mental rotation task incrementally explained PM performance in the multiple-context, but not in the single-context, condition, even after controlling for individual differences in working memory updating and ongoing task performance. These findings suggest that delayed intentions occurring in multiple ongoing task contexts reflect independent contributions of working memory updating and mental rotation and that spatial relational processing may specifically be involved in higher cognitive functions, such as complex PM in multiple contexts or multitasking.

Elementary students' perceptions of 3Dmetric: A cross-sectional study

Rapid changes in the 21st century demand the use of technology in learning geometry in elementary schools. One such technology is augmented reality (AR). 3Dmetric (3D and Geometric) is a geometry learning medium on AR-based 3D space material. Students' perceptions, which refer to their interpretation, are a key factor in studying the changes in their interpretations of a particular phenomenon. The purpose of the current study was to investigate the perceptions of elementary school students after using 3Dmetric to learn geometric shapes. The differences and the relationship between the students’ level of perception and level of spatial ability were also investigated. This study applied a cross-sectional approach with quantitative and qualitative designs. A total of 36 students in one elementary school in Indonesia participated in this study. The instruments used were the Perception Scale for Using 3Dmetric in Geometry Teaching, Spatial Ability Scale, and In-Depth Interview Form. Results showed that the positive perception of elementary school students regarding the use of 3Dmetric does not depend on the level of their spatial ability. Moreover, the difference in their perceptions is not caused by the level of their spatial ability. The positive findings in this cross-sectional study can contribute to the success of AR-based learning and teaching in the 21st century, especially with regard to learning materials for 3D geometry. They can also lead to the formation of the spatial abilities and improvement in the academic performance of elementary school students.

No Evidence for Enhancement of Spatial Ability with Elevated Prenatal Androgen Exposure in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: A Meta-Analysis

Spatial abilities contribute to life and occupational competencies, and certain spatial skills differ, on average, between males and females, typically favoring males when differences occur. Factors contributing to spatial skills could include prenatal as well as experiential/cultural influences, with biological and social influences likely interacting and difficult to disentangle. This meta-analysis examined the potential influence of prenatal androgen exposure on spatial skill by examining studies of patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). CAH involves elevated adrenal androgens prenatally, with overall androgen concentrations higher for females with CAH versus same-sex controls but with little overall difference between males with CAH versus controls. We hypothesized that, if androgens contribute prenatally to neurobehavioral development in humans as in many other species, females with CAH would show spatial enhancement versus control females, but with no definitive hypothesis for males. Meta-analysis of 12 studies examining overall spatial skill and three spatial subcategories failed to support enhanced spatial performance for females with CAH; males with CAH showed lower spatial ability compared to control males, at least for the category of overall spatial skill. Although statistical logic precludes accepting the null hypothesis for females, the meta-analysis failed to support the idea that prenatal exposure to androgens explains spatial gender/sex differences in humans. Alternative explanations for average gender/sex differences in some spatial tasks could include androgen exposure at other times, such as mini-puberty, or different social factors experienced by males and females. We also discuss possible explanations for the different outcomes seen in females versus males with CAH.

Examining Gender Differences in Neurocognitive Functioning Across Adulthood

OBJECTIVE

Previous research has shown that women have an advantage on verbal episodic memory and processing speed tasks, while men show an advantage on spatial ability measures. Previous work has also found differences in cognition across age. The current study examines gender differences in neurocognitive functioning across adulthood, whether age moderates this effect, and whether these differences remain consistent with practice across multiple testing sessions.

METHOD

Data from the Virginia Cognitive Aging Project were used, which included participants between the ages of 18 and 99 years (N = 5125). Participants completed measures assessing five cognitive domains: episodic memory, processing speed, reasoning, spatial visualization, and vocabulary.

RESULTS

Results showed that gender was significantly related to memory, speed, and spatial visualization, but not to vocabulary or reasoning. Results of invariance analyses across men and women provided evidence of configural and metric invariance, along with partial scalar invariance. Additionally, there was little evidence that age or practice influenced the gender effect on neurocognition.

CONCLUSIONS

Consistent with the previous research, these results suggest that there is a female advantage in episodic memory and processing speed, and a male advantage in spatial visualization. Gender was shown to influence cognition similarly across adulthood. Furthermore, the influence of gender remained the same across three sessions, which is consistent with the previous work that has shown that training does not differentially impact performance on spatial ability measures for females compared to males.

Butch-Femme Identity and Visuospatial Performance Among Lesbian and Bisexual Women in China

Lesbian and bisexual women who self-identify as "butch" show a masculine profile with regard to gender roles, gender nonconformity, and systemizing cognitive style, whereas lesbian and bisexual women who self-identify as "femme" show a corresponding feminine profile and those who self-identify as "androgynes" show an intermediate profile. This study examined the association between butch or femme lesbian or bisexual identity and visuospatial ability among 323 lesbian and bisexual women, compared to heterosexual women (n = 207) and men (n = 125), from multiple cities in China. Visuospatial ability was assessed using a Shepard and Metzler-type mental rotation task and Judgment of Line Angle and Position (JLAP) test on the Internet. Heterosexual men outperformed heterosexual women on both mental rotation and JLAP tasks. Lesbian and bisexual women outperformed heterosexual women on mental rotation, but not on JLAP. There were significant differences in mental rotation performance among women, with butch- and androgyne-identified lesbian/bisexual women outperforming femme-identified and heterosexual women. There were also significant differences in JLAP performance among women, with butch- and androgyne-identified lesbian/bisexual women and heterosexual women outperforming femme-identified lesbian/bisexual women. The butch-femme differences in visuospatial ability indicated an association between cognitive ability and butch-femme identity and suggest that neurobiological underpinnings may contribute to butch-femme identity although alternative explanations exist.

The impact from the aftermath of chronic stress on hippocampal structure and function: Is there a recovery?

Chronic stress results in functional and structural changes to the brain and especially the hippocampus. Decades of research have provided insights into the mechanisms by which chronic stress impairs hippocampal-mediated cognition and the corresponding reduction of hippocampal CA3 apical dendritic complexity. Yet, when chronic stress ends and time passes, which we refer to as a "post-stress rest period," hippocampal-mediated spatial memory deficits begin to improve and CA3 apical dendritic arbors increase in complexity. The processes by which the hippocampus improves from a chronically stressed state are not simply the reversal of the mechanisms that produced spatial memory deficits and CA3 apical dendritic retraction. This review will discuss our current understanding of how a chronically stressed hippocampus improves after a post-stress rest period. Untangling the mechanisms that allow for this post-stress plasticity is a critical next step in understanding how to promote resilience in the face of stressors.

Spatial working memory in neurofibromatosis 1: Altered neural activity and functional connectivity

Background

Neurofibromatosis Type 1 (NF1) is a genetic disorder that disrupts central nervous system development and neuronal function. Cognitively, NF1 is characterized by difficulties with executive control and visuospatial abilities. Little is known about the neural substrates underlying these deficits. The current study utilized Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent (BOLD) functional MRI (fMRI) to explore the neural correlates of spatial working memory (WM) deficits in patients with NF1.

Methods

BOLD images were acquired from 23 adults with NF1 (age M = 32.69; 61% male) and 25 matched healthy controls (age M = 33.08; 64% male) during an in-scanner visuo-spatial WM task. Whole brain functional and psycho-physiological interaction analyses were utilized to investigate neural activity and functional connectivity, respectively, during visuo-spatial WM performance. Participants also completed behavioral measures of spatial reasoning and verbal WM.

Results

Relative to healthy controls, participants with NF1 showed reduced recruitment of key components of WM circuitry, the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and right parietal cortex. In addition, healthy controls exhibited greater simultaneous deactivation between the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) and temporal regions than NF1 patients. In contrast, NF1 patients showed greater PCC and bilateral parietal connectivity with visual cortices as well as between the PCC and the cerebellum. In NF1 participants, increased functional coupling of the PCC with frontal and parietal regions was associated with better spatial reasoning and WM performance, respectively; these relationships were not observed in controls.

Conclusions

Dysfunctional engagement of WM circuitry, and aberrant functional connectivity of ‘task-negative’ regions in NF1 patients may underlie spatial WM difficulties characteristic of the disorder.

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NF1 is a monogenic disorder associated with executive function deficits.

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Hypoactivity of working memory circuitry in NF1 patients relative to controls

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Increased PCC connectivity with visual cortex/cerebellum in NF1 patients during task

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Greater simultaneous deactivation between default mode regions in controls

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Greater PCC-frontal coupling associated with better behavioral performance in NF1

Creating visual explanations improves learning

Many topics in science are notoriously difficult for students to learn. Mechanisms and processes outside student experience present particular challenges. While instruction typically involves visualizations, students usually explain in words. Because visual explanations can show parts and processes of complex systems directly, creating them should have benefits beyond creating verbal explanations. We compared learning from creating visual or verbal explanations for two STEM domains, a mechanical system (bicycle pump) and a chemical system (bonding). Both kinds of explanations were analyzed for content and learning assess by a post-test. For the mechanical system, creating a visual explanation increased understanding particularly for participants of low spatial ability. For the chemical system, creating both visual and verbal explanations improved learning without new teaching. Creating a visual explanation was superior and benefitted participants of both high and low spatial ability. Visual explanations often included crucial yet invisible features. The greater effectiveness of visual explanations appears attributable to the checks they provide for completeness and coherence as well as to their roles as platforms for inference. The benefits should generalize to other domains like the social sciences, history, and archeology where important information can be visualized. Together, the findings provide support for the use of learner-generated visual explanations as a powerful learning tool.

Acquisition of dental skills in preclinical technique courses: influence of spatial and manual abilities

Sixty years of research have not added up to a concordant evaluation of the influence of spatial and manual abilities on dental skill acquisition. We used Ackerman's theory of ability determinants of skill acquisition to explain the influence of spatial visualization and manual dexterity on the task performance of dental students in two consecutive preclinical technique courses. We measured spatial and manual abilities of applicants to Hamburg Dental School by means of a multiple choice test on Technical Aptitude and a wire-bending test, respectively. Preclinical dental technique tasks were categorized as consistent-simple and inconsistent-complex based on their contents. For analysis, we used robust regression to circumvent typical limitations in dental studies like small sample size and non-normal residual distributions. We found that manual, but not spatial ability exhibited a moderate influence on the performance in consistent-simple tasks during dental skill acquisition in preclinical dentistry. Both abilities revealed a moderate relation with the performance in inconsistent-complex tasks. These findings support the hypotheses which we had postulated on the basis of Ackerman's work. Therefore, spatial as well as manual ability are required for the acquisition of dental skills in preclinical technique courses. These results support the view that both abilities should be addressed in dental admission procedures in addition to cognitive measures.

Sex differences in visuospatial and navigational working memory: the role of mood induced by background music

Sex differences in visuospatial abilities are long debated. Men generally outperform women, especially in wayfinding or learning a route or a sequence of places. These differences might depend on women's disadvantage in underlying spatial competences, such as mental rotation, and on the strategies used, as well as on emotions and on self-belief about navigational skills, not related to actual skill-levels. In the present study, sex differences in visuospatial and navigational working memory in emotional contexts were investigated. Participants' mood was manipulated by background music (positive, negative or neutral) while performing on the Corsi Block-tapping Task (CBT) and Walking Corsi (WalCT) test. In order to assess the effectiveness of mood manipulation, participants filled in the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule before and after carrying out the visuospatial tasks. Firstly, results showed that after mood induction, only the positive affect changed, whereas the negative affect remained unconfounded by mood and by sex. This finding is in line with the main effect of 'group' on all tests used: the positive music group scored significantly higher than other groups. Secondly, although men outperformed women in the CBT forward condition and in the WalCT forward and backward conditions, they scored higher than women only in the WalCT with the negative background music. This means that mood cannot fully explain sex differences in visuospatial and navigational working memory. Our results suggest that sex differences in the CBT and WalCT can be better explained by differences in spatial competences rather than by emotional contexts.

Oral contraceptives and cognition: A role for ethinyl estradiol

This article is part of a Special Issue "Estradiol and cognition". Estrogens have been seen to play a role in human cognitive abilities, but questions remain about the cognitive impact of ethinyl estradiol, which is contained in many oral contraceptives (OCs). Inconsistencies in past studies likely reflect small samples and heterogeneous groups of OC users. The aims of the present work were to examine OC effects on sex-typed spatial and verbal abilities by (a) comparing mental rotations and expressional fluency in normally-cycling (NC) women and men to OC users considered as a heterogeneous group and then to homogeneous groups of OC users created by classifying pills according to their active constituents, and (b) determining the relation between synthetic hormone doses in OCs and mental rotations and expressional fluency. Participants were 136 men, 93 NC women, and 148 OC users, including homogeneous monophasic (n = 55) and triphasic (n = 43) OC groups, aged 18 to 30 years. Significant effects of OC use were seen in homogeneous group comparisons but not when OC users were considered as a heterogeneous group. On mental rotations, men outperformed women, and monophasic OC users outperformed NC women. The latter difference may be attributable to estradiol, as ethinyl estradiol was inversely related to spatial ability among OC users and was lower in monophasic than in triphasic users. On expressional fluency, NC women and monophasic OC users outperformed men, and monophasic users outperformed triphasic users. Thus, results show the importance of ethinyl estradiol and of considering pill constituents when studying the cognitive effects of OCs.

Seasonal change in the avian hippocampus

The hippocampus plays an important role in cognitive processes, including memory and spatial orientation, in birds. The hippocampus undergoes seasonal change in food-storing birds and brood parasites, there are changes in the hippocampus during breeding, and further changes occur in some species in association with migration. In food-storing birds, seasonal change in the hippocampus occurs in fall and winter when the cognitively demanding behaviour of caching and retrieving food occurs. The timing of annual change in the hippocampus of food-storing birds is quite variable, however, and appears not to be under photoperiod control. A variety of factors, including cognitive performance, exercise, and stress may all influence seasonal change in the avian hippocampus. The causal processes underlying seasonal change in the avian hippocampus have not been extensively examined and the more fully described hormonal influences on the mammalian hippocampus may provide hypotheses for investigating the control of hippocampal seasonality in birds.

Explorative function in Prader-Willi syndrome analyzed through an ecological spatial task

This study was aimed at evaluating the spatial abilities in individuals with Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) by using an ecological large-scale task with multiple rewards. To evaluate the extent of spatial deficit in PWS individuals, we compare their performances with those of individuals with Williams Syndrome (WS) in which the spatial deficits have been widely described. Participants had to explore an open space to search nine rewards placed in buckets arranged according to three spatial configurations: a Cross, a 3×3 Matrix and a Cluster composed by three groups of three buckets each. PWS individuals exhibited an explorative deficit in Cluster and Cross configurations, while WS participants in Matrix and Cross configurations. The findings indicate that the structural affordances of the environment influence the explorative strategies and can be related to how spatial information is processed.

Sex differences in spatial navigation and perception in human adolescents and emerging adults

Males typically outperform females on spatial tasks, beginning early in life and continuing into adulthood. This study aimed to characterize age and sex differences in human spatial ability using a virtual Water Maze Task (vWMT), which is based on the classic Morris water maze spatial navigation task used in rodents. Performance on the vWMT and on a task assessing visuospatial perception, Mental Rotations Test (MRT), was examined in 33 adolescents and 39 emerging adults. For the vWMT, significant effects of age and sex were observed for path length in the target region (narrower spatial sampling), and heading error, with emerging adults performing better than adolescents, and an overall male advantage. For the MRT, males scored higher than females, but only in emerging adulthood. Overall, sex differences in visuospatial perception (MRT) emerge differently from those observed on a classic navigation task, with age and sex-specific superior vWMT performance likely related to the use of more efficient strategies. Importantly, these results extend the developmental timeline of spatial ability characterization to include adolescent males and females performing a virtual version of the classic vWMT.

Cognitive benefits of right-handedness: a meta-analysis

Hand preference - which is related to cerebral dominance - is thought to be associated with cognitive skills; however, findings on this association are inconsistent and there is no consensus whether left- or right-handers have an advantage in either spatial or verbal abilities. In addition, it is not clear whether an interaction between sex and hand preference exists in relation to these cognitive abilities. As these matters are relevant from a neurodevelopmental perspective we performed a meta-analysis of the available literature. We searched PubMed and Embase, and included 14 studies (359,890 subjects) in the verbal ability meta-analysis and 16 studies (218,351 subjects) in the spatial ability meta-analysis. There was no difference between the full sample of left and right-handers for verbal ability, nor was there a hand preference-by-sex interaction. Subgroup analysis of children showed a small right-hand benefit. Our results further revealed a modest but significant effect favouring right-handedness for overall spatial ability, which was more pronounced when analysis was restricted to studies applying the mental rotation test. We could not identify a specific interaction with sex. Our results indicate that there is a small but significant cognitive advantage of right-handedness on spatial ability. In the verbal domain, this advantage is only significant in children. An interaction effect with sex is not confirmed.

Manual action, fitting, and spatial planning: relating objects by young children

This study uses motion tracking technology to provide a new way of addressing the development of the ability to prospectively orient objects with respect to one another. A group of toddlers between 16 and 33 months of age (N=30) were studied in an object fitting task while they wore reflective markers on their hands to track spatial adjustments in three dimensions. Manual displacements of the handheld object were separated into translations and rotations. Results revealed that younger children largely used a two-step approach in which they initially translate an object to a target and subsequently attempt to rotate the object to match the target. In contrast, older children evidence more advanced spatial planning and integrate translational and rotational components throughout the entire period when they are transporting the object to the target. Additionally, at the oldest ages, children show even further improvements in coordinating translations and rotations by using relatively shorter translations (i.e., covering less distance) and by avoiding unnecessary rotations of the object. More broadly, the results offer insights into how manual problem solving becomes more efficient and planful during the toddler years.

Performance on a virtual reality angled laparoscope task correlates with spatial ability of trainees

The aim of the present study was to investigate whether trainees' performance on a virtual reality angled laparoscope navigation task correlates with scores obtained on a validated conventional test of spatial ability. 56 participants of a surgery workshop performed an angled laparoscope navigation task on the Xitact LS 500 virtual reality Simulator. Performance parameters were correlated with the score of a validated paper-and-pencil test of spatial ability. Performance at the conventional spatial ability test significantly correlated with performance at the virtual reality task for overall task score (p < 0.001), task completion time (p < 0.001) and economy of movement (p = 0.035), not for endoscope travel speed (p = 0.947). In conclusion, trainees' performance in a standardized virtual reality camera navigation task correlates with their innate spatial ability. This VR session holds potential to serve as an assessment tool for trainees.