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Ata S, Shibakami M. Experimental and theoretical estimation of the Hansen solubility parameters of paramylon esters based on the degrees of substitution and chain lengths of their acyl groups. Biopolymers 2023; 114:e23565. [PMID: 37635653 DOI: 10.1002/bip.23565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023]
Abstract
Paramylon is a natural hydrophilic polysaccharide produced in the pyrenoids of euglenoids, and esterification may render paramylon hydrophobic. Esterification imparts not only thermoplasticity, but also potential compatibilities with other polymer resins and fillers. However, the dependence of the compatibility on the structure of the polymer ester has not yet been systematically studied. To estimate the affinities between paramylon esters and hydrophobic organic solvents/resins, the dependences of their Hansen solubility parameters, which are association indices, on the degrees of substitution and chain lengths of the ester groups were investigated. Experimental and theoretical investigations were conducted using the dissolution and Fedors methods, respectively. Esterification decreased the solubility parameter from 49 (paramylon) to approximately 18 MPa1/2 (paramylon esters), indicating that the potential affinities of paramylon esters for hydrophobic organic solvents/polymers increased. A multiple regression analysis was also performed to investigate the effects of acyl chain length and degree of substitution with acyl groups on the solubility parameter. The solubility parameters of the paramylon derivatives were continuously variable from hydrophilic to -phobic. Hence, esterification with various acyl groups may control the hydrophobicities of paramylon esters, enhancing their miscibilities with various hydrophobic organic solvents and resins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seisuke Ata
- Research Institute for Chemical Process Technology, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba, Japan
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Pereyra AS, McLaughlin KL, Buddo KA, Ellis JM. Medium-chain fatty acid oxidation is independent of l-carnitine in liver and kidney but not in heart and skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2023; 325:G287-G294. [PMID: 37461880 PMCID: PMC10642992 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00105.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Revised: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Medium-chain fatty acid (MCFA) consumption confers a wide range of health benefits that are highly distinct from long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs). A major difference between the metabolism of LCFAs compared with MCFAs is that mitochondrial LCFA oxidation depends on the carnitine shuttle, whereas MCFA mitochondrial oxidation is not. Although MCFAs are said to range from 6 to 14 carbons long based on physicochemical properties in vitro, the biological cut-off length of acyl chains that can bypass the carnitine shuttle in different mammalian tissues is unknown. To define the range of acyl chain length that can be oxidized in the mitochondria independent of carnitine, we determined the oxidative metabolism of free fatty acids (FFAs) from 6 to 18 carbons long in the liver, kidney, heart, and skeletal muscle. The liver oxidized FFAs 6 to 14 carbons long, whereas the kidney oxidized FFAs from 6 to 10 carbons in length. Heart and skeletal muscle were unable to oxidize FFAs of any chain length. These data show that while the liver and kidney can oxidize MCFAs in the free form, the heart and skeletal muscle require carnitine for the oxidative metabolism of MCFAs. Together these data demonstrate that MCFA oxidation independent of carnitine is tissue-specific.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This work demonstrates that the traditional concept of mitochondrial medium-chain fatty acid oxidation as unregulated and independent of carnitine applies only to liver metabolism, and to kidney to a lesser extent, but not the heart or skeletal muscle. Thus, the benefits of dietary medium-chain fatty acids are set by liver metabolic activity and peripheral tissues are unlikely to receive direct benefits from medium-chain fatty acid metabolism, but rather metabolic byproducts of liver's medium-chain oxidative metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea S Pereyra
- Department of Physiology and East Carolina Diabetes and Obesity Institute, Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, United States
| | - Kelsey L McLaughlin
- Department of Physiology and East Carolina Diabetes and Obesity Institute, Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, United States
| | - Katherine A Buddo
- Department of Physiology and East Carolina Diabetes and Obesity Institute, Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, United States
| | - Jessica M Ellis
- Department of Physiology and East Carolina Diabetes and Obesity Institute, Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, United States
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Bao X, Koorengevel MC, Groot Koerkamp MJA, Homavar A, Weijn A, Crielaard S, Renne MF, Lorent JH, Geerts WJC, Surma MA, Mari M, Holstege FCP, Klose C, de Kroon AIPM. Shortening of membrane lipid acyl chains compensates for phosphatidylcholine deficiency in choline-auxotroph yeast. EMBO J 2021; 40:e107966. [PMID: 34520050 PMCID: PMC8521299 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2021107966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Phosphatidylcholine (PC) is an abundant membrane lipid component in most eukaryotes, including yeast, and has been assigned multiple functions in addition to acting as building block of the lipid bilayer. Here, by isolating S. cerevisiae suppressor mutants that exhibit robust growth in the absence of PC, we show that PC essentiality is subject to cellular evolvability in yeast. The requirement for PC is suppressed by monosomy of chromosome XV or by a point mutation in the ACC1 gene encoding acetyl-CoA carboxylase. Although these two genetic adaptations rewire lipid biosynthesis in different ways, both decrease Acc1 activity, thereby reducing average acyl chain length. Consistently, soraphen A, a specific inhibitor of Acc1, rescues a yeast mutant with deficient PC synthesis. In the aneuploid suppressor, feedback inhibition of Acc1 through acyl-CoA produced by fatty acid synthase (FAS) results from upregulation of lipid synthesis. The results show that budding yeast regulates acyl chain length by fine-tuning the activities of Acc1 and FAS and indicate that PC evolved by benefitting the maintenance of membrane fluidity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Bao
- Membrane Biochemistry & BiophysicsBijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Institute of BiomembranesUtrecht UniversityUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | - Martijn C Koorengevel
- Membrane Biochemistry & BiophysicsBijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Institute of BiomembranesUtrecht UniversityUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | | | - Amir Homavar
- Membrane Biochemistry & BiophysicsBijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Institute of BiomembranesUtrecht UniversityUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | - Amrah Weijn
- Membrane Biochemistry & BiophysicsBijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Institute of BiomembranesUtrecht UniversityUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | - Stefan Crielaard
- Membrane Biochemistry & BiophysicsBijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Institute of BiomembranesUtrecht UniversityUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | - Mike F Renne
- Membrane Biochemistry & BiophysicsBijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Institute of BiomembranesUtrecht UniversityUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | - Joseph H Lorent
- Membrane Biochemistry & BiophysicsBijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Institute of BiomembranesUtrecht UniversityUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | - Willie JC Geerts
- Cryo‐Electron MicroscopyBijvoet Center for Biomolecular ResearchUtrecht UniversityUtrechtThe Netherlands
| | | | - Muriel Mari
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells & SystemsUniversity Medical Center GroningenUniversity of GroningenGroningenThe Netherlands
| | | | | | - Anton I P M de Kroon
- Membrane Biochemistry & BiophysicsBijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Institute of BiomembranesUtrecht UniversityUtrechtThe Netherlands
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Park WJ, Park JW. The role of sphingolipids in endoplasmic reticulum stress. FEBS Lett 2020; 594:3632-3651. [PMID: 32538465 DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.13863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2020] [Revised: 05/15/2020] [Accepted: 06/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an important intracellular compartment in eukaryotic cells and has diverse functions, including protein synthesis, protein folding, lipid metabolism and calcium homeostasis. ER functions are disrupted by various intracellular and extracellular stimuli that cause ER stress, including the inhibition of glycosylation, disulphide bond reduction, ER calcium store depletion, impaired protein transport to the Golgi, excessive ER protein synthesis, impairment of ER-associated protein degradation and mutated ER protein expression. Distinct ER stress signalling pathways, which are known as the unfolded protein response, are deployed to maintain ER homeostasis, and a failure to reverse ER stress triggers cell death. Sphingolipids are lipids that are structurally characterized by long-chain bases, including sphingosine or dihydrosphingosine (also known as sphinganine). Sphingolipids are bioactive molecules long known to regulate various cellular processes, including cell proliferation, migration, apoptosis and cell-cell interaction. Recent studies have uncovered that specific sphingolipids are involved in ER stress. This review summarizes the roles of sphingolipids in ER stress and human diseases in the context of pathogenic events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woo-Jae Park
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Gachon University, Incheon, South Korea
| | - Joo-Won Park
- Department of Biochemistry, College of Medicine, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, South Korea
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Arenas J, Pupo E, de Jonge E, Pérez-Ortega J, Schaarschmidt J, van der Ley P, Tommassen J. Substrate specificity of the pyrophosphohydrolase LpxH determines the asymmetry of Bordetella pertussis lipid A. J Biol Chem 2019; 294:7982-7989. [PMID: 30926608 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.004680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2018] [Revised: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Lipopolysaccharides are anchored to the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria by a hydrophobic moiety known as lipid A, which potently activates the host innate immune response. Lipid A of Bordetella pertussis, the causative agent of whooping cough, displays unusual structural asymmetry with respect to the length of the acyl chains at the 3 and 3' positions, which are 3OH-C10 and 3OH-C14 chains, respectively. Both chains are attached by the acyltransferase LpxA, the first enzyme in the lipid A biosynthesis pathway, which, in B. pertussis, has limited chain length specificity. However, this only partially explains the strict asymmetry of lipid A. In attempts to modulate the endotoxicity of B. pertussis lipid A, here we expressed the gene encoding LpxA from Neisseria meningitidis, which specifically attaches 3OH-C12 chains, in B. pertussis This expression was lethal, suggesting that one of the downstream enzymes in the lipid A biosynthesis pathway in B. pertussis cannot handle precursors with a 3OH-C12 chain. We considered that the UDP-diacylglucosamine pyrophosphohydrolase LpxH could be responsible for this defect as well as for the asymmetry of B. pertussis lipid A. Expression of meningococcal LpxH in B. pertussis indeed resulted in new symmetric lipid A species with 3OH-C10 or 3OH-C14 chains at both the 3 and 3' positions, as revealed by MS analysis. Furthermore, co-expression of meningococcal lpxH and lpxA resulted in viable cells that incorporated 3OH-C12 chains in B. pertussis lipid A. We conclude that the asymmetry of B. pertussis lipid A is determined by the acyl chain length specificity of LpxH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesús Arenas
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Institute of Biomembranes, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | - Elder Pupo
- Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc), Antonie van Leeuwenhoeklaan 9, 3721 MA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Eline de Jonge
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Institute of Biomembranes, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jesús Pérez-Ortega
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Institute of Biomembranes, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Joerg Schaarschmidt
- Computational Structural Biology Group, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Peter van der Ley
- Institute for Translational Vaccinology (Intravacc), Antonie van Leeuwenhoeklaan 9, 3721 MA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Jan Tommassen
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Institute of Biomembranes, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Setoguchi S, Watase D, Nagata-Akaho N, Haratake A, Matsunaga K, Takata J. Pharmacokinetics of Paradol Analogues Orally Administered to Rats. J Agric Food Chem 2016; 64:1932-1937. [PMID: 26868188 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.5b05615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The kinetics parameters of paradols with different acyl chain lengths have been evaluated to determine their antiobesity site of action. Rats were orally administered olive oil containing 0-, 6-, 8-, or 12-paradol, and blood samples were collected at different time points. The concentrations of the paradols in the plasma were analyzed both with and without β-glucuronidase treatment. The area under the plasma concentration-time curve from 0 to 24 h (AUC(0-24h)) of the parent compounds decreased with increasing acyl chain length. Whereas 12-paradol showed the largest AUC(0-24h) with the longest time to reach its maximum plasma concentration of all of the compounds tested, the AUC(0-24h) values of the metabolites decreased with increasing acyl chain length. These results indicate that increasing acyl chain length leads to a decrease in the absorption of paradols via the intestinal tract, the wall of which was estimated to be their antiobesity site of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuichi Setoguchi
- Laboratory of Drug Design and Drug Delivery, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University , 19-1 Nanakuma 8-Chome, Jonan-ku, Fukuoka, Japan 814-0180
| | - Daisuke Watase
- Laboratory of Drug Design and Drug Delivery, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University , 19-1 Nanakuma 8-Chome, Jonan-ku, Fukuoka, Japan 814-0180
| | - Nami Nagata-Akaho
- Laboratory of Drug Design and Drug Delivery, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University , 19-1 Nanakuma 8-Chome, Jonan-ku, Fukuoka, Japan 814-0180
| | - Akinori Haratake
- Laboratory of Drug Design and Drug Delivery, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University , 19-1 Nanakuma 8-Chome, Jonan-ku, Fukuoka, Japan 814-0180
| | - Kazuhisa Matsunaga
- Laboratory of Drug Design and Drug Delivery, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University , 19-1 Nanakuma 8-Chome, Jonan-ku, Fukuoka, Japan 814-0180
| | - Jiro Takata
- Laboratory of Drug Design and Drug Delivery, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Fukuoka University , 19-1 Nanakuma 8-Chome, Jonan-ku, Fukuoka, Japan 814-0180
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Park WJ, Brenner O, Kogot-Levin A, Saada A, Merrill AH, Pewzner-Jung Y, Futerman AH. Development of pheochromocytoma in ceramide synthase 2 null mice. Endocr Relat Cancer 2015; 22:623-32. [PMID: 26113602 PMCID: PMC5586043 DOI: 10.1530/erc-15-0058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Pheochromocytoma (PCC) and paraganglioma are rare neuroendocrine tumors of the adrenal medulla and sympathetic and parasympathetic paraganglia, for which mutations in ∼15 disease-associated genes have been identified. We now document the role of an additional gene in mice, the ceramide synthase 2 (CerS2) gene. CerS2, one of six mammalian CerS, synthesizes ceramides with very-long (C22-C24) chains. The CerS2 null mouse has been well characterized and displays lesions in several organs including the liver, lung and the brain. We now demonstrate that changes in the sphingolipid acyl chain profile of the adrenal gland lead to the generation of adrenal medullary tumors. Histological analyses revealed that about half of the CerS2 null mice developed PCC by ∼13 months, and the rest showed signs of medullary hyperplasia. Norepinephrine and normetanephrine levels in the urine were elevated at 7 months of age consistent with the morphological abnormalities found at later ages. Accumulation of ceroid in the X-zone was observed as early as 2 months of age and as a consequence, older mice displayed elevated levels of lysosomal cathepsins, reduced proteasome activity and reduced activity of mitochondrial complex IV by 6 months of age. Together, these findings implicate an additional pathway that can lead to PCC formation, which involves alterations in the sphingolipid acyl chain length. Analysis of the role of sphingolipids in PCC may lead to further understanding of the mechanism by which PCC develops, and might implicate the sphingolipid pathway as a possible novel therapeutic target for this rare tumor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woo-Jae Park
- Department of Biological ChemistryWeizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, IsraelDepartment of BiochemistrySchool of Medicine, Gachon University, Incheon 406-799, South KoreaDepartment of Veterinary ResourcesWeizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, IsraelMonique and Jacques Roboh Department of Genetic ResearchDepartment of Genetics and Metabolic Diseases, Hadassah, Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, IsraelSchool of Biology and Petit Institute for Bioengineering and BioscienceGeorgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0230, USA Department of Biological ChemistryWeizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, IsraelDepartment of BiochemistrySchool of Medicine, Gachon University, Incheon 406-799, South KoreaDepartment of Veterinary ResourcesWeizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, IsraelMonique and Jacques Roboh Department of Genetic ResearchDepartment of Genetics and Metabolic Diseases, Hadassah, Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, IsraelSchool of Biology and Petit Institute for Bioengineering and BioscienceGeorgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0230, USA
| | - Ori Brenner
- Department of Biological ChemistryWeizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, IsraelDepartment of BiochemistrySchool of Medicine, Gachon University, Incheon 406-799, South KoreaDepartment of Veterinary ResourcesWeizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, IsraelMonique and Jacques Roboh Department of Genetic ResearchDepartment of Genetics and Metabolic Diseases, Hadassah, Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, IsraelSchool of Biology and Petit Institute for Bioengineering and BioscienceGeorgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0230, USA
| | - Aviram Kogot-Levin
- Department of Biological ChemistryWeizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, IsraelDepartment of BiochemistrySchool of Medicine, Gachon University, Incheon 406-799, South KoreaDepartment of Veterinary ResourcesWeizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, IsraelMonique and Jacques Roboh Department of Genetic ResearchDepartment of Genetics and Metabolic Diseases, Hadassah, Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, IsraelSchool of Biology and Petit Institute for Bioengineering and BioscienceGeorgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0230, USA Department of Biological ChemistryWeizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, IsraelDepartment of BiochemistrySchool of Medicine, Gachon University, Incheon 406-799, South KoreaDepartment of Veterinary ResourcesWeizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, IsraelMonique and Jacques Roboh Department of Genetic ResearchDepartment of Genetics and Metabolic Diseases, Hadassah, Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, IsraelSchool of Biology and Petit Institute for Bioengineering and BioscienceGeorgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0230, USA
| | - Ann Saada
- Department of Biological ChemistryWeizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, IsraelDepartment of BiochemistrySchool of Medicine, Gachon University, Incheon 406-799, South KoreaDepartment of Veterinary ResourcesWeizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, IsraelMonique and Jacques Roboh Department of Genetic ResearchDepartment of Genetics and Metabolic Diseases, Hadassah, Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, IsraelSchool of Biology and Petit Institute for Bioengineering and BioscienceGeorgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0230, USA
| | - Alfred H Merrill
- Department of Biological ChemistryWeizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, IsraelDepartment of BiochemistrySchool of Medicine, Gachon University, Incheon 406-799, South KoreaDepartment of Veterinary ResourcesWeizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, IsraelMonique and Jacques Roboh Department of Genetic ResearchDepartment of Genetics and Metabolic Diseases, Hadassah, Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, IsraelSchool of Biology and Petit Institute for Bioengineering and BioscienceGeorgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0230, USA
| | - Yael Pewzner-Jung
- Department of Biological ChemistryWeizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, IsraelDepartment of BiochemistrySchool of Medicine, Gachon University, Incheon 406-799, South KoreaDepartment of Veterinary ResourcesWeizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, IsraelMonique and Jacques Roboh Department of Genetic ResearchDepartment of Genetics and Metabolic Diseases, Hadassah, Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, IsraelSchool of Biology and Petit Institute for Bioengineering and BioscienceGeorgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0230, USA
| | - Anthony H Futerman
- Department of Biological ChemistryWeizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, IsraelDepartment of BiochemistrySchool of Medicine, Gachon University, Incheon 406-799, South KoreaDepartment of Veterinary ResourcesWeizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, IsraelMonique and Jacques Roboh Department of Genetic ResearchDepartment of Genetics and Metabolic Diseases, Hadassah, Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, IsraelSchool of Biology and Petit Institute for Bioengineering and BioscienceGeorgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0230, USA
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