1
|
Wu H, Liang X, Wang R, Ma Y, Gao Y, Ning X. A Multivariate analysis on evoked components of Chinese semantic congruity: an OP-MEG study with EEG. Cereb Cortex 2024; 34:bhae108. [PMID: 38610084 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhae108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Revised: 02/28/2024] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
The application of wearable magnetoencephalography using optically-pumped magnetometers has drawn extensive attention in the field of neuroscience. Electroencephalogram system can cover the whole head and reflect the overall activity of a large number of neurons. The efficacy of optically-pumped magnetometer in detecting event-related components can be validated through electroencephalogram results. Multivariate pattern analysis is capable of tracking the evolution of neurocognitive processes over time. In this paper, we adopted a classical Chinese semantic congruity paradigm and separately collected electroencephalogram and optically-pumped magnetometer signals. Then, we verified the consistency of optically-pumped magnetometer and electroencephalogram in detecting N400 using mutual information index. Multivariate pattern analysis revealed the difference in decoding performance of these two modalities, which can be further validated by dynamic/stable coding analysis on the temporal generalization matrix. The results from searchlight analysis provided a neural basis for this dissimilarity at the magnetoencephalography source level and the electroencephalogram sensor level. This study opens a new avenue for investigating the brain's coding patterns using wearable magnetoencephalography and reveals the differences in sensitivity between the two modalities in reflecting neuron representation patterns.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Huanqi Wu
- Key Laboratory of Ultra-Weak Magnetic Field Measurement Technology, Ministry of Education, School of Instrumentation and Optoelectronic Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
- Hangzhou Institute of National Extremely-weak Magnetic Field Infrastructure, Hangzhou 310051, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Ultra-Weak Magnetic-Field Space and Applied Technology, Hangzhou Innovation Institute, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xiaoyu Liang
- Key Laboratory of Ultra-Weak Magnetic Field Measurement Technology, Ministry of Education, School of Instrumentation and Optoelectronic Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
- Hangzhou Institute of National Extremely-weak Magnetic Field Infrastructure, Hangzhou 310051, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Ultra-Weak Magnetic-Field Space and Applied Technology, Hangzhou Innovation Institute, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Ruonan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Ultra-Weak Magnetic Field Measurement Technology, Ministry of Education, School of Instrumentation and Optoelectronic Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
- Hangzhou Institute of National Extremely-weak Magnetic Field Infrastructure, Hangzhou 310051, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Ultra-Weak Magnetic-Field Space and Applied Technology, Hangzhou Innovation Institute, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Yuyu Ma
- Key Laboratory of Ultra-Weak Magnetic Field Measurement Technology, Ministry of Education, School of Instrumentation and Optoelectronic Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
- Hangzhou Institute of National Extremely-weak Magnetic Field Infrastructure, Hangzhou 310051, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Ultra-Weak Magnetic-Field Space and Applied Technology, Hangzhou Innovation Institute, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Yang Gao
- Key Laboratory of Ultra-Weak Magnetic Field Measurement Technology, Ministry of Education, School of Instrumentation and Optoelectronic Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
- Hangzhou Institute of National Extremely-weak Magnetic Field Infrastructure, Hangzhou 310051, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Ultra-Weak Magnetic-Field Space and Applied Technology, Hangzhou Innovation Institute, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xiaolin Ning
- Key Laboratory of Ultra-Weak Magnetic Field Measurement Technology, Ministry of Education, School of Instrumentation and Optoelectronic Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
- Hangzhou Institute of National Extremely-weak Magnetic Field Infrastructure, Hangzhou 310051, China
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Ultra-Weak Magnetic-Field Space and Applied Technology, Hangzhou Innovation Institute, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
- Shandong Key Laboratory for Magnetic Field-free Medicine & Functional Imaging, Institute of Magnetic Field-free Medicine & Functional Imaging, Shandong University, Shandong 264209, China
- Hefei National Laboratory, Anhui 230026, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Stroud JP, Watanabe K, Suzuki T, Stokes MG, Lengyel M. Optimal information loading into working memory explains dynamic coding in the prefrontal cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2307991120. [PMID: 37983510 PMCID: PMC10691340 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2307991120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Working memory involves the short-term maintenance of information and is critical in many tasks. The neural circuit dynamics underlying working memory remain poorly understood, with different aspects of prefrontal cortical (PFC) responses explained by different putative mechanisms. By mathematical analysis, numerical simulations, and using recordings from monkey PFC, we investigate a critical but hitherto ignored aspect of working memory dynamics: information loading. We find that, contrary to common assumptions, optimal loading of information into working memory involves inputs that are largely orthogonal, rather than similar, to the late delay activities observed during memory maintenance, naturally leading to the widely observed phenomenon of dynamic coding in PFC. Using a theoretically principled metric, we show that PFC exhibits the hallmarks of optimal information loading. We also find that optimal information loading emerges as a general dynamical strategy in task-optimized recurrent neural networks. Our theory unifies previous, seemingly conflicting theories of memory maintenance based on attractor or purely sequential dynamics and reveals a normative principle underlying dynamic coding.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jake P. Stroud
- Computational and Biological Learning Lab, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 1PZ, United Kingdom
| | - Kei Watanabe
- Graduate School of Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Osaka565-0871, Japan
| | - Takafumi Suzuki
- Center for Information and Neural Networks, National Institute of Communication and Information Technology, Osaka565-0871, Japan
| | - Mark G. Stokes
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, OxfordOX2 6GG, United Kingdom
- Oxford Centre for Human Brain Activity, Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, OxfordOX3 9DU, United Kingdom
| | - Máté Lengyel
- Computational and Biological Learning Lab, Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, CambridgeCB2 1PZ, United Kingdom
- Center for Cognitive Computation, Department of Cognitive Science, Central European University, BudapestH-1051, Hungary
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Abstract
Neurons in navigational brain regions provide information about position, orientation, and speed relative to environmental landmarks. These cells also change their firing patterns ('remap') in response to changing contextual factors such as environmental cues, task conditions, and behavioral states, which influence neural activity throughout the brain. How can navigational circuits preserve their local computations while responding to global context changes? To investigate this question, we trained recurrent neural network models to track position in simple environments while at the same time reporting transiently-cued context changes. We show that these combined task constraints (navigation and context inference) produce activity patterns that are qualitatively similar to population-wide remapping in the entorhinal cortex, a navigational brain region. Furthermore, the models identify a solution that generalizes to more complex navigation and inference tasks. We thus provide a simple, general, and experimentally-grounded model of remapping as one neural circuit performing both navigation and context inference.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isabel IC Low
- Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia UniversityNew YorkUnited States
| | - Lisa M Giocomo
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
| | - Alex H Williams
- Center for Computational Neuroscience, Flatiron InstituteNew YorkUnited States
- Center for Neural Science, New York UniversityNew YorkUnited States
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Low II, Giocomo LM, Williams AH. Remapping in a recurrent neural network model of navigation and context inference. bioRxiv 2023:2023.01.25.525596. [PMID: 36747825 PMCID: PMC9900889 DOI: 10.1101/2023.01.25.525596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Neurons in navigational brain regions provide information about position, orientation, and speed relative to environmental landmarks. These cells also change their firing patterns ("remap") in response to changing contextual factors such as environmental cues, task conditions, and behavioral state, which influence neural activity throughout the brain. How can navigational circuits preserve their local computations while responding to global context changes? To investigate this question, we trained recurrent neural network models to track position in simple environments while at the same time reporting transiently-cued context changes. We show that these combined task constraints (navigation and context inference) produce activity patterns that are qualitatively similar to population-wide remapping in the entorhinal cortex, a navigational brain region. Furthermore, the models identify a solution that generalizes to more complex navigation and inference tasks. We thus provide a simple, general, and experimentally-grounded model of remapping as one neural circuit performing both navigation and context inference.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isabel I.C. Low
- Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University,Center for Computational Neuroscience, Flatiron Institute,Correspondence to: ,
| | | | - Alex H. Williams
- Center for Computational Neuroscience, Flatiron Institute,Center for Neural Science, New York University,Correspondence to: ,
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Low IIC, Williams AH, Campbell MG, Linderman SW, Giocomo LM. Dynamic and reversible remapping of network representations in an unchanging environment. Neuron 2021; 109:2967-2980.e11. [PMID: 34363753 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2021.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Revised: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Neurons in the medial entorhinal cortex alter their firing properties in response to environmental changes. This flexibility in neural coding is hypothesized to support navigation and memory by dividing sensory experience into unique episodes. However, it is unknown how the entorhinal circuit as a whole transitions between different representations when sensory information is not delineated into discrete contexts. Here we describe rapid and reversible transitions between multiple spatial maps of an unchanging task and environment. These remapping events were synchronized across hundreds of neurons, differentially affected navigational cell types, and correlated with changes in running speed. Despite widespread changes in spatial coding, remapping comprised a translation along a single dimension in population-level activity space, enabling simple decoding strategies. These findings provoke reconsideration of how the medial entorhinal cortex dynamically represents space and suggest a remarkable capacity of cortical circuits to rapidly and substantially reorganize their neural representations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Isabel I C Low
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA; Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
| | - Alex H Williams
- Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Statistics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Malcolm G Campbell
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Scott W Linderman
- Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA; Department of Statistics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Lisa M Giocomo
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA; Wu Tsai Neurosciences Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Kamiński J, Rutishauser U. Between persistently active and activity-silent frameworks: novel vistas on the cellular basis of working memory. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2019; 1464:64-75. [PMID: 31407811 PMCID: PMC7015771 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.14213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2019] [Revised: 07/09/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Recent work has revealed important new discoveries on the cellular mechanisms of working memory (WM). These findings have motivated several seemingly conflicting theories on the mechanisms of short‐term memory maintenance. Here, we summarize the key insights gained from these new experiments and critically evaluate them in light of three hypotheses: classical persistent activity, activity‐silent, and dynamic coding. The experiments discussed include the first direct demonstration of persistently active neurons in the human medial temporal lobe that form static attractors with relevance to WM, single‐neuron recordings in the macaque prefrontal cortex that show evidence for both persistent and more dynamic types of WM representations, and noninvasive neuroimaging in humans that argues for activity‐silent representations. A key insight that emerges from these new results is that there are several neural mechanisms that support the maintenance of information in WM. Finally, based on established cognitive theories of WM, we propose a coherent model that encompasses these seemingly contradictory results. We propose that the three neuronal mechanisms of persistent activity, activity‐silent, and dynamic coding map well onto the cognitive levels of information processing (within focus of attention, activated long‐term memory, and central executive) that Cowan's WM model proposes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jan Kamiński
- Department of Neurosurgery, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California.,Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California
| | - Ueli Rutishauser
- Department of Neurosurgery, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California.,Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California.,Department of Neurology, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California.,Center for Neural Science and Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, California
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Abstract
For over 45 years, neuroscientists have conducted experiments aimed at understanding the neural basis of working memory. Early results examining individual neurons highlighted that information is stored in working memory in persistent sustained activity where neurons maintained elevated firing rates over extended periods of time. However, more recent work has emphasized that information is often stored in working memory in dynamic population codes, where different neurons contain information at different periods in time. In this paper, I review findings that show that both sustained activity as well as dynamic codes are present in the prefrontal cortex and other regions during memory delay periods. I also review work showing that dynamic codes are capable of supporting working memory and that such dynamic codes could easily be "readout" by downstream regions. Finally, I discuss why dynamic codes could be useful for enabling animals to solve tasks that involve working memory. Although additional work is still needed to know definitively whether dynamic coding is critical for working memory, the findings reviewed here give insight into how different codes could contribute to working memory, which should be useful for guiding future research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ethan M Meyers
- Center for Brains, Minds and Machines, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and School of Cognitive Science, Hampshire College , Amherst, Massachusetts
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Spaak E, Watanabe K, Funahashi S, Stokes MG. Stable and Dynamic Coding for Working Memory in Primate Prefrontal Cortex. J Neurosci 2017; 37:6503-16. [PMID: 28559375 DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3364-16.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2016] [Revised: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 04/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Working memory (WM) provides the stability necessary for high-level cognition. Influential theories typically assume that WM depends on the persistence of stable neural representations, yet increasing evidence suggests that neural states are highly dynamic. Here we apply multivariate pattern analysis to explore the population dynamics in primate lateral prefrontal cortex (PFC) during three variants of the classic memory-guided saccade task (recorded in four animals). We observed the hallmark of dynamic population coding across key phases of a working memory task: sensory processing, memory encoding, and response execution. Throughout both these dynamic epochs and the memory delay period, however, the neural representational geometry remained stable. We identified two characteristics that jointly explain these dynamics: (1) time-varying changes in the subpopulation of neurons coding for task variables (i.e., dynamic subpopulations); and (2) time-varying selectivity within neurons (i.e., dynamic selectivity). These results indicate that even in a very simple memory-guided saccade task, PFC neurons display complex dynamics to support stable representations for WM. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Flexible, intelligent behavior requires the maintenance and manipulation of incoming information over various time spans. For short time spans, this faculty is labeled “working memory” (WM). Dominant models propose that WM is maintained by stable, persistent patterns of neural activity in prefrontal cortex (PFC). However, recent evidence suggests that neural activity in PFC is dynamic, even while the contents of WM remain stably represented. Here, we explored the neural dynamics in PFC during a memory-guided saccade task. We found evidence for dynamic population coding in various task epochs, despite striking stability in the neural representational geometry of WM. Furthermore, we identified two distinct cellular mechanisms that contribute to dynamic population coding.
Collapse
|
9
|
Wolff MJ, Ding J, Myers NE, Stokes MG. Revealing hidden states in visual working memory using electroencephalography. Front Syst Neurosci 2015; 9:123. [PMID: 26388748 PMCID: PMC4558475 DOI: 10.3389/fnsys.2015.00123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2015] [Accepted: 08/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
It is often assumed that information in visual working memory (vWM) is maintained via persistent activity. However, recent evidence indicates that information in vWM could be maintained in an effectively "activity-silent" neural state. Silent vWM is consistent with recent cognitive and neural models, but poses an important experimental problem: how can we study these silent states using conventional measures of brain activity? We propose a novel approach that is analogous to echolocation: using a high-contrast visual stimulus, it may be possible to drive brain activity during vWM maintenance and measure the vWM-dependent impulse response. We recorded electroencephalography (EEG) while participants performed a vWM task in which a randomly oriented grating was remembered. Crucially, a high-contrast, task-irrelevant stimulus was shown in the maintenance period in half of the trials. The electrophysiological response from posterior channels was used to decode the orientations of the gratings. While orientations could be decoded during and shortly after stimulus presentation, decoding accuracy dropped back close to baseline in the delay. However, the visual evoked response from the task-irrelevant stimulus resulted in a clear re-emergence in decodability. This result provides important proof-of-concept for a promising and relatively simple approach to decode "activity-silent" vWM content using non-invasive EEG.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J. Wolff
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of GroningenGroningen, Netherlands
- Oxford Centre for Human Brain Activity, University of OxfordOxford, UK
| | - Jacqueline Ding
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of OxfordOxford, UK
| | - Nicholas E. Myers
- Oxford Centre for Human Brain Activity, University of OxfordOxford, UK
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of OxfordOxford, UK
| | - Mark G. Stokes
- Oxford Centre for Human Brain Activity, University of OxfordOxford, UK
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of OxfordOxford, UK
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Astrand E, Ibos G, Duhamel JR, Ben Hamed S. Differential dynamics of spatial attention, position, and color coding within the parietofrontal network. J Neurosci 2015; 35:3174-89. [PMID: 25698752 DOI: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2370-14.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite an ever growing knowledge on how parietal and prefrontal neurons encode low-level spatial and color information or higher-level information, such as spatial attention, an understanding of how these cortical regions process neuronal information at the population level is still missing. A simple assumption would be that the function and temporal response profiles of these neuronal populations match that of its constituting individual cells. However, several recent studies suggest that this is not necessarily the case and that the single-cell approach overlooks dynamic changes in how information is distributed over the neuronal population. Here, we use a time-resolved population pattern analysis to explore how spatial position, spatial attention and color information are differentially encoded and maintained in the macaque monkey prefrontal (frontal eye fields) and parietal cortex (lateral intraparietal area). Overall, our work brings about three novel observations. First, we show that parietal and prefrontal populations operate in two distinct population regimens for the encoding of sensory and cognitive information: a stationary mode and a dynamic mode. Second, we show that the temporal dynamics of a heterogeneous neuronal population brings about complementary information to that of its functional subpopulations. Thus, both need to be investigated in parallel. Last, we show that identifying the neuronal configuration in which a neuronal population encodes given information can serve to reveal this same information in a different context. All together, this work challenges common views on neural coding in the parietofrontal network.
Collapse
|
11
|
Kadohisa M, Kusunoki M, Petrov P, Sigala N, Buckley MJ, Gaffan D, Duncan J. Spatial and temporal distribution of visual information coding in lateral prefrontal cortex. Eur J Neurosci 2015; 41:89-96. [PMID: 25307044 PMCID: PMC4315869 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.12754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2014] [Revised: 09/05/2014] [Accepted: 09/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Prefrontal neurons code many kinds of behaviourally relevant visual information. In behaving monkeys, we used a cued target detection task to address coding of objects, behavioural categories and spatial locations, examining the temporal evolution of neural activity across dorsal and ventral regions of the lateral prefrontal cortex (encompassing parts of areas 9, 46, 45A and 8A), and across the two cerebral hemispheres. Within each hemisphere there was little evidence for regional specialisation, with neurons in dorsal and ventral regions showing closely similar patterns of selectivity for objects, categories and locations. For a stimulus in either visual field, however, there was a strong and temporally specific difference in response in the two cerebral hemispheres. In the first part of the visual response (50-250 ms from stimulus onset), processing in each hemisphere was largely restricted to contralateral stimuli, with strong responses to such stimuli, and selectivity for both object and category. Later (300-500 ms), responses to ipsilateral stimuli also appeared, many cells now responding more strongly to ipsilateral than to contralateral stimuli, and many showing selectivity for category. Activity on error trials showed that late activity in both hemispheres reflected the animal's final decision. As information is processed towards a behavioural decision, its encoding spreads to encompass large, bilateral regions of prefrontal cortex.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mikiko Kadohisa
- MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, Cambridge, UK; Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, South Parks Rd, Oxford, OX1 3UD, UK
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|