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Hou J, Liu Z, Yang Z, Yang C. Hardware Trojan Attacks on the Reconfigurable Interconnections of Field-Programmable Gate Array-Based Convolutional Neural Network Accelerators and a Physically Unclonable Function-Based Countermeasure Detection Technique. Micromachines (Basel) 2024; 15:149. [PMID: 38276848 PMCID: PMC10820922 DOI: 10.3390/mi15010149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2023] [Revised: 12/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have demonstrated significant superiority in modern artificial intelligence (AI) applications. To accelerate the inference process of CNNs, reconfigurable CNN accelerators that support diverse networks are widely employed for AI systems. Given the ubiquitous deployment of these AI systems, there is a growing concern regarding the security of CNN accelerators and the potential attacks they may face, including hardware Trojans. This paper proposes a hardware Trojan designed to attack a crucial component of FPGA-based CNN accelerators: the reconfigurable interconnection network. Specifically, the hardware Trojan alters the data paths during activation, resulting in incorrect connections in the arithmetic circuit and consequently causing erroneous convolutional computations. To address this issue, the paper introduces a novel detection technique based on physically unclonable functions (PUFs) to safeguard the reconfigurable interconnection network against hardware Trojan attacks. Experimental results demonstrate that by incorporating a mere 0.27% hardware overhead to the accelerator, the proposed hardware Trojan can degrade the inference accuracy of popular neural network architectures, including LeNet, AlexNet, and VGG, by a significant range of 8.93% to 86.20%. The implemented arbiter-PUF circuit on a Xilinx Zynq XC7Z100 platform successfully detects the presence and location of hardware Trojans in a reconfigurable interconnection network. This research highlights the vulnerability of reconfigurable CNN accelerators to hardware Trojan attacks and proposes a promising detection technique to mitigate potential security risks. The findings underscore the importance of addressing hardware security concerns in the design and deployment of AI systems utilizing FPGA-based CNN accelerators.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Chen Yang
- School of Microelectronics, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China; (J.H.); (Z.L.); (Z.Y.)
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2
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Grenier A, Lei J, Damsgaard HJ, Quintana-Ortí ES, Ometov A, Lohan ES, Nurmi J. Hard SyDR: A Benchmarking Environment for Global Navigation Satellite System Algorithms. Sensors (Basel) 2024; 24:409. [PMID: 38257502 PMCID: PMC10820876 DOI: 10.3390/s24020409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 01/06/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024]
Abstract
A Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is widely used today for both positioning and timing purposes. Many distinct receiver chips are available as Application-Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)s off-the-shelf, each tailored to the requirements of various applications. These chips deliver good performance and low energy consumption but offer customers little-to-no transparency about their internal features. This prevents modification, research in GNSS processing chain enhancement (e.g., application of Approximate Computing (AxC) techniques), and design space exploration to find the optimal receiver for a use case. In this paper, we review the GNSS processing chain using SyDR, our open-source GNSS Software-Defined Radio (SDR) designed for algorithm benchmarking, and highlight the limitations of a software-only environment. In return, we propose an evolution to our system, called Hard SyDR to become closer to the hardware layer and access new Key Performance Indicator (KPI)s, such as power/energy consumption and resource utilization. We use High-Level Synthesis (HLS) and the PYNQ platform to ease our development process and provide an overview of their advantages/limitations in our project. Finally, we evaluate the foreseen developments, including how this work can serve as the foundation for an exploration of AxC techniques in future low-power GNSS receivers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Grenier
- Electrical Engineering Unit, Tampere University, 33720 Tampere, Finland; (H.J.D.); (A.O.); (E.S.L.); (J.N.)
| | - Jie Lei
- Parallel Architectures Group, Universitat Politècnica de València, 46010 Valencia, Spain; (J.L.); (E.S.Q.-O.)
| | - Hans Jakob Damsgaard
- Electrical Engineering Unit, Tampere University, 33720 Tampere, Finland; (H.J.D.); (A.O.); (E.S.L.); (J.N.)
| | - Enrique S. Quintana-Ortí
- Parallel Architectures Group, Universitat Politècnica de València, 46010 Valencia, Spain; (J.L.); (E.S.Q.-O.)
| | - Aleksandr Ometov
- Electrical Engineering Unit, Tampere University, 33720 Tampere, Finland; (H.J.D.); (A.O.); (E.S.L.); (J.N.)
| | - Elena Simona Lohan
- Electrical Engineering Unit, Tampere University, 33720 Tampere, Finland; (H.J.D.); (A.O.); (E.S.L.); (J.N.)
| | - Jari Nurmi
- Electrical Engineering Unit, Tampere University, 33720 Tampere, Finland; (H.J.D.); (A.O.); (E.S.L.); (J.N.)
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Pomponio M, Hati A, Nelson C. Ultra-Low Phase Noise Frequency Division With Array of Direct Digital Synthesizers. IEEE Trans Instrum Meas 2023; 73:10.1109/tim.2023.3346538. [PMID: 38455687 PMCID: PMC10916524 DOI: 10.1109/tim.2023.3346538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
In this article, we present a four-channel direct digital synthesis (DDS) design that operates with a common clock ranging from 500 MHz to 24 GHz and generates output frequencies up to 1.75 GHz. A key feature of this board is its custom field-programmable gate array (FPGA)-based synchronization method, which ensures alignment accuracy of 170 ps between the channels, enabling precise frequency and phase relationship settings. In addition, the DDS board incorporates a user-friendly web interface that allows for continuous control and monitoring capabilities over TCP/IP. Multiple synchronized channels can be power-combined to produce a low-phase noise output due to coherent addition of the common carriers and the noncoherent addition of the residual DDS noise. By exploiting these principles and combining eight parallel channels of two DDS boards, we achieve exceptional residual phase noise performance, with L ( 1 Hz ) = - 147 dBc / Hz and L ( 100 kHz ) = - 180 dBc / Hz for a 9.765625 MHz output signal. These noise levels surpass the previously reported results achieved with regenerative frequency dividers. We also present a method for obtaining accurate residual noise measurements using an absolute phase modulation (PM) noise and amplitude modulation (AM) noise nalyse. Furthermore, we nalyse the phase alignment tolerances required to minimize the AM-to-PM and PM-to-AM conversion that commonly occurs in power-combined signals. Finally, we demonstrate the synthesis of a highly stable 9.765625 MHz signal obtained from a cavity-stabilized optical frequency comb (OFC), with an absolute white phase noise of -180 dBc/Hz.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Pomponio
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO 80305 USA
- Department of Physics, Colorado University of Boulder, Boulder, CO 80305 USA
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO 80305 USA
| | - Archita Hati
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO 80305 USA
| | - Craig Nelson
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO 80305 USA
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Su Y, Seng KP, Ang LM, Smith J. Binary Neural Networks in FPGAs: Architectures, Tool Flows and Hardware Comparisons. Sensors (Basel) 2023; 23:9254. [PMID: 38005640 PMCID: PMC10675041 DOI: 10.3390/s23229254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2023] [Revised: 10/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023]
Abstract
Binary neural networks (BNNs) are variations of artificial/deep neural network (ANN/DNN) architectures that constrain the real values of weights to the binary set of numbers {-1,1}. By using binary values, BNNs can convert matrix multiplications into bitwise operations, which accelerates both training and inference and reduces hardware complexity and model sizes for implementation. Compared to traditional deep learning architectures, BNNs are a good choice for implementation in resource-constrained devices like FPGAs and ASICs. However, BNNs have the disadvantage of reduced performance and accuracy because of the tradeoff due to binarization. Over the years, this has attracted the attention of the research community to overcome the performance gap of BNNs, and several architectures have been proposed. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive review of BNNs for implementation in FPGA hardware. The survey covers different aspects, such as BNN architectures and variants, design and tool flows for FPGAs, and various applications for BNNs. The final part of the paper gives some benchmark works and design tools for implementing BNNs in FPGAs based on established datasets used by the research community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanxin Su
- School of AI and Advanced Computing, Xi’an Jiaotong Liverpool University, Suzhou 215000, China;
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GJ, UK;
| | - Kah Phooi Seng
- School of AI and Advanced Computing, Xi’an Jiaotong Liverpool University, Suzhou 215000, China;
- School of Computer Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane City, QLD 4000, Australia;
- School of Science Technology and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD 4556, Australia
| | - Li Minn Ang
- School of Computer Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane City, QLD 4000, Australia;
| | - Jeremy Smith
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Electronics, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GJ, UK;
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Wang D, Lin Y, Hu J, Zhang C, Zhong Q. FPGA Implementation for Elliptic Curve Cryptography Algorithm and Circuit with High Efficiency and Low Delay for IoT Applications. Micromachines (Basel) 2023; 14:mi14051037. [PMID: 37241660 DOI: 10.3390/mi14051037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2023] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The Internet of Things requires greater attention to the security and privacy of the network. Compared to other public-key cryptosystems, elliptic curve cryptography can provide better security and lower latency with shorter keys, rendering it more suitable for IoT security. This paper presents a high-efficiency and low-delay elliptic curve cryptographic architecture based on the NIST-p256 prime field for IoT security applications. A modular square unit utilizes a fast partial Montgomery reduction algorithm, demanding just a mere four clock cycles to complete a modular square operation. The modular square unit can be computed simultaneously with the modular multiplication unit, consequently improving the speed of point multiplication operations. Synthesized on the Xilinx Virtex-7 FPGA platform, the proposed architecture completes one PM operation in 0.08 ms using 23.1 k LUTs at 105.3 MHz. These results show significantly better performance compared to that in previous works.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deming Wang
- School of Electronics and Information Engineering, South China Normal University, Foshan 528225, China
- Development Research Institute of Guangzhou Smart City, Guangzhou 510805, China
| | - Yuhang Lin
- School of Physics and Telecommunication Engineering, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Jianguo Hu
- Development Research Institute of Guangzhou Smart City, Guangzhou 510805, China
- School of Microelectronics Science and Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519082, China
| | - Chong Zhang
- School of Microelectronics Science and Technology, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai 519082, China
| | - Qinghua Zhong
- School of Electronics and Information Engineering, South China Normal University, Foshan 528225, China
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6
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Lim O, Mancini S, Dalla Mura M. Feasibility of a Real-Time Embedded Hyperspectral Compressive Sensing Imaging System. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:9793. [PMID: 36560159 PMCID: PMC9784322 DOI: 10.3390/s22249793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2022] [Revised: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 12/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Hyperspectral imaging has been attracting considerable interest as it provides spectrally rich acquisitions useful in several applications, such as remote sensing, agriculture, astronomy, geology and medicine. Hyperspectral devices based on compressive acquisitions have appeared recently as an alternative to conventional hyperspectral imaging systems and allow for data-sampling with fewer acquisitions than classical imaging techniques, even under the Nyquist rate. However, compressive hyperspectral imaging requires a reconstruction algorithm in order to recover all the data from the raw compressed acquisition. The reconstruction process is one of the limiting factors for the spread of these devices, as it is generally time-consuming and comes with a high computational burden. Algorithmic and material acceleration with embedded and parallel architectures (e.g., GPUs and FPGAs) can considerably speed up image reconstruction, making hyperspectral compressive systems suitable for real-time applications. This paper provides an in-depth analysis of the required performance in terms of computing power, data memory and bandwidth considering a compressive hyperspectral imaging system and a state-of-the-art reconstruction algorithm as an example. The results of the analysis show that real-time application is possible by combining several approaches, namely, exploitation of system matrix sparsity and bandwidth reduction by appropriately tuning data value encoding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Lim
- University Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, TIMA, 38031 Grenoble, France
- University Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, GIPSA-Lab, 38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Stéphane Mancini
- University Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, TIMA, 38031 Grenoble, France
| | - Mauro Dalla Mura
- University Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble INP, GIPSA-Lab, 38000 Grenoble, France
- Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), 75231 Paris, France
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7
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Liu R, Yu H, Wang Y, Li Y, Liu X, Zhang P, Zhou Q, Ni K. Extending Non-Ambiguity Range of Dual-Comb Ranging for a Mobile Target Based on FPGA. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:s22186830. [PMID: 36146178 PMCID: PMC9503577 DOI: 10.3390/s22186830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 09/04/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Dual-comb ranging (DCR) is an important method in absolute distance ranging because of its high precision, fast acquisition rate, and large measuring range. DCR needs to obtain precise results during distance measurements for a mobile target. However, the non-ambiguity range (NAR) is a challenge when pushing the dual-comb ranging to the industry field. This paper presents a solution for extending NAR by designing an algorithm and realizing it on a field-programmable gate array (FPGA). The algorithm is robust when facing the timing jitter in the optical frequency comb. Without averaging, the Allan deviation of the results in 1 ms is ∼3.89 μm and the Allan deviation of the results is ∼0.37 μm at an averaging time of 100 ms when the target object is standstill near the NAR. In addition, several ranging experiments were conducted on a mobile target whose speed was from ∼5 mm/s to ∼10 mm/s. The experimental results verify the effectiveness and robustness of our design. The implemented design is an online and real-time data processing unit that shows great industrial potential for using the DCR system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruoyu Liu
- Division of Advanced Manufacturing, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Haoyang Yu
- Department of Automation, Central South University, Changsha 410083, China
| | - Yue Wang
- Division of Advanced Manufacturing, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Yu Li
- Division of Advanced Manufacturing, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Xinda Liu
- Division of Advanced Manufacturing, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Pengpeng Zhang
- Division of Advanced Manufacturing, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Qian Zhou
- Division of Advanced Manufacturing, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Kai Ni
- Division of Advanced Manufacturing, Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
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Lee M, Zhang Z, Choi S, Choi J. Minimizing Global Buffer Access in a Deep Learning Accelerator Using a Local Register File with a Rearranged Computational Sequence. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:s22083095. [PMID: 35459079 PMCID: PMC9032599 DOI: 10.3390/s22083095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2022] [Revised: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
We propose a method for minimizing global buffer access within a deep learning accelerator for convolution operations by maximizing the data reuse through a local register file, thereby substituting the local register file access for the power-hungry global buffer access. To fully exploit the merits of data reuse, this study proposes a rearrangement of the computational sequence in a deep learning accelerator. Once input data are read from the global buffer, repeatedly reading the same data is performed only through the local register file, saving significant power consumption. Furthermore, different from prior works that equip local register files in each computation unit, the proposed method enables sharing a local register file along the column of the 2D computation array, saving resources and controlling overhead. The proposed accelerator is implemented on an off-the-shelf field-programmable gate array to verify the functionality and resource utilization. Then, the performance improvement of the proposed method is demonstrated relative to popular deep learning accelerators. Our evaluation indicates that the proposed deep learning accelerator reduces the number of global-buffer accesses to nearly 86.8%, consequently saving up to 72.3% of the power consumption for the input data memory access with a minor increase in resource usage compared to a conventional deep learning accelerator.
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Pereira P, Silva J, Silva A, Fernandes D, Machado R. Efficient Hardware Design and Implementation of the Voting Scheme-Based Convolution. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:2943. [PMID: 35458928 DOI: 10.3390/s22082943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Due to a point cloud’s sparse nature, a sparse convolution block design is necessary to deal with its particularities. Mechanisms adopted in computer vision have recently explored the advantages of data processing in more energy-efficient hardware, such as the FPGA, as a response to the need to run these algorithms on resource-constrained edge devices. However, implementing it in hardware has not been properly explored, resulting in a small number of studies aimed at analyzing the potential of sparse convolutions and their efficiency on resource-constrained hardware platforms. This article presents the design of a customizable hardware block for the voting convolution. We carried out an in-depth analysis to determine under which conditions the use of the voting scheme is justified instead of dense convolutions. The proposed hardware design achieves an energy consumption about 8.7 times lower than similar works in the literature by ignoring unnecessary arithmetic operations with null weights and leveraging data dependency. Access to data memory was also reduced to the minimum necessary, leading to improvements of around 55% in processing time. To evaluate both the performance and applicability of the proposed solution, the voting convolution was integrated into the well-known PointPillars model, where it achieves improvements between 23.05% and 80.44% without a significant effect on detection performance.
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Cao Y, Guo S, Jiang S, Zhou X, Wang X, Luo Y, Yu Z, Zhang Z, Deng Y. Parallel Optimisation and Implementation of a Real-Time Back Projection (BP) Algorithm for SAR Based on FPGA. Sensors (Basel) 2022; 22:s22062292. [PMID: 35336463 PMCID: PMC8950284 DOI: 10.3390/s22062292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Revised: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 03/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
This study conducts an in-depth evaluation of imaging algorithms and software and hardware architectures to meet the capability requirements of real-time image acquisition systems, such as spaceborne and airborne synthetic aperture radar (SAR) systems. By analysing the principles and models of SAR imaging, this research creatively puts forward the fully parallel processing architecture for the back projection (BP) algorithm based on Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA). The processing time consumption has significant advantages compared with existing methods. This article describes the BP imaging algorithm, which stands out with its high processing accuracy and two-dimensional decoupling of distance and azimuth, and analyses the algorithmic flow, operation, and storage requirements. The algorithm is divided into five core operations: range pulse compression, upsampling, oblique distance calculation, data reading, and phase accumulation. The architecture and optimisation of the algorithm are presented, and the optimisation methods are described in detail from the perspective of algorithm flow, fixed-point operation, parallel processing, and distributed storage. Next, the maximum resource utilisation rate of the hardware platform in this study is found to be more than 80%, the system power consumption is 21.073 W, and the processing time efficiency is better than designs with other FPGA, DSP, GPU, and CPU. Finally, the correctness of the processing results is verified using actual data. The experimental results showed that 1.1 s were required to generate an image with a size of 900 × 900 pixels at a 200 MHz clock rate. This technology can solve the multi-mode, multi-resolution, and multi-geometry signal processing problems in an integrated manner, thus laying a foundation for the development of a new, high-performance, SAR system for real-time imaging processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Cao
- Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China; (S.G.); (S.J.); (X.Z.); (X.W.); (Y.L.); (Z.Y.); (Z.Z.); (Y.D.)
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 101408, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-185-0139-9627
| | - Shuchen Guo
- Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China; (S.G.); (S.J.); (X.Z.); (X.W.); (Y.L.); (Z.Y.); (Z.Z.); (Y.D.)
| | - Shuai Jiang
- Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China; (S.G.); (S.J.); (X.Z.); (X.W.); (Y.L.); (Z.Y.); (Z.Z.); (Y.D.)
| | - Xuan Zhou
- Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China; (S.G.); (S.J.); (X.Z.); (X.W.); (Y.L.); (Z.Y.); (Z.Z.); (Y.D.)
| | - Xiaobei Wang
- Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China; (S.G.); (S.J.); (X.Z.); (X.W.); (Y.L.); (Z.Y.); (Z.Z.); (Y.D.)
| | - Yunhua Luo
- Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China; (S.G.); (S.J.); (X.Z.); (X.W.); (Y.L.); (Z.Y.); (Z.Z.); (Y.D.)
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 101408, China
| | - Zhongjun Yu
- Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China; (S.G.); (S.J.); (X.Z.); (X.W.); (Y.L.); (Z.Y.); (Z.Z.); (Y.D.)
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 101408, China
| | - Zhimin Zhang
- Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China; (S.G.); (S.J.); (X.Z.); (X.W.); (Y.L.); (Z.Y.); (Z.Z.); (Y.D.)
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 101408, China
| | - Yunkai Deng
- Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100094, China; (S.G.); (S.J.); (X.Z.); (X.W.); (Y.L.); (Z.Y.); (Z.Z.); (Y.D.)
- School of Electronic, Electrical and Communication Engineering, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 101408, China
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11
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Heo J, Jung Y, Lee S, Jung Y. FPGA Implementation of an Efficient FFT Processor for FMCW Radar Signal Processing. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:6443. [PMID: 34640766 DOI: 10.3390/s21196443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 09/18/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
This paper presents the design and implementation results of an efficient fast Fourier transform (FFT) processor for frequency-modulated continuous wave (FMCW) radar signal processing. The proposed FFT processor is designed with a memory-based FFT architecture and supports variable lengths from 64 to 4096. Moreover, it is designed with a floating-point operator to prevent the performance degradation of fixed-point operators. FMCW radar signal processing requires windowing operations to increase the target detection rate by reducing clutter side lobes, magnitude calculation operations based on the FFT results to detect the target, and accumulation operations to improve the detection performance of the target. In addition, in some applications such as the measurement of vital signs, the phase of the FFT result has to be calculated. In general, only the FFT is implemented in the hardware, and the other FMCW radar signal processing is performed in the software. The proposed FFT processor implements not only the FFT, but also windowing, accumulation, and magnitude/phase calculations in the hardware. Therefore, compared with a processor implementing only the FFT, the proposed FFT processor uses 1.69 times the hardware resources but achieves an execution time 7.32 times shorter.
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12
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Pham DM, Aziz SM. FlexiS-A Flexible Sensor Node Platform for the Internet of Things. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:s21155154. [PMID: 34372391 PMCID: PMC8347224 DOI: 10.3390/s21155154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2021] [Revised: 07/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, significant research and development efforts have been made to transform the Internet of Things (IoT) from a futuristic vision to reality. The IoT is expected to deliver huge economic benefits through improved infrastructure and productivity in almost all sectors. At the core of the IoT are the distributed sensing devices or sensor nodes that collect and communicate information about physical entities in the environment. These sensing platforms have traditionally been developed around off-the-shelf microcontrollers. Field-Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA) have been used in some of the recent sensor nodes due to their inherent flexibility and high processing capability. FPGAs can be exploited to huge advantage because the sensor nodes can be configured to adapt their functionality and performance to changing requirements. In this paper, FlexiS, a high performance and flexible sensor node platform based on FPGA, is presented. Test results show that FlexiS is suitable for data and computation intensive applications in wireless sensor networks because it offers high performance with low energy profile, easy integration of multiple types of sensors, and flexibility. This type of sensing platforms will therefore be suitable for the distributed data analysis and decision-making capabilities the emerging IoT applications require.
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Awaludin AM, Larasati HT, Kim H. High-Speed and Unified ECC Processor for Generic Weierstrass Curves over GF( p) on FPGA. Sensors (Basel) 2021; 21:s21041451. [PMID: 33669681 PMCID: PMC7922882 DOI: 10.3390/s21041451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Revised: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, we present a high-speed, unified elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) processor for arbitrary Weierstrass curves over GF(p), which to the best of our knowledge, outperforms other similar works in terms of execution time. Our approach employs the combination of the schoolbook long and Karatsuba multiplication algorithm for the elliptic curve point multiplication (ECPM) to achieve better parallelization while retaining low complexity. In the hardware implementation, the substantial gain in speed is also contributed by our n-bit pipelined Montgomery Modular Multiplier (pMMM), which is constructed from our n-bit pipelined multiplier-accumulators that utilizes digital signal processor (DSP) primitives as digit multipliers. Additionally, we also introduce our unified, pipelined modular adder/subtractor (pMAS) for the underlying field arithmetic, and leverage a more efficient yet compact scheduling of the Montgomery ladder algorithm. The implementation for 256-bit modulus size on the 7-series FPGA: Virtex-7, Kintex-7, and XC7Z020 yields 0.139, 0.138, and 0.206 ms of execution time, respectively. Furthermore, since our pMMM module is generic for any curve in Weierstrass form, we support multi-curve parameters, resulting in a unified ECC architecture. Lastly, our method also works in constant time, making it suitable for applications requiring high speed and SCA-resistant characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asep Muhamad Awaludin
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan 609735, Korea; (A.M.A.); (H.T.L.)
| | - Harashta Tatimma Larasati
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan 609735, Korea; (A.M.A.); (H.T.L.)
- School of Electrical Engineering and Informatics, Institut Teknologi Bandung, Bandung 40116, Indonesia
| | - Howon Kim
- School of Computer Science and Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan 609735, Korea; (A.M.A.); (H.T.L.)
- Correspondence:
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14
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Jang SJ, Hwang Y. Noise-Aware and Light-Weight VLSI Design of Bilateral Filter for Robust and Fast Image Denoising in Mobile Systems. Sensors (Basel) 2020; 20:E4722. [PMID: 32825616 DOI: 10.3390/s20174722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The range kernel of bilateral filter degrades image quality unintentionally in real environments because the pixel intensity varies randomly due to the noise that is generated in image sensors. Furthermore, the range kernel increases the complexity due to the comparisons with neighboring pixels and the multiplications with the corresponding weights. In this paper, we propose a noise-aware range kernel, which estimates noise using an intensity difference-based image noise model and dynamically adjusts weights according to the estimated noise, in order to alleviate the quality degradation of bilateral filters by noise. In addition, to significantly reduce the complexity, an approximation scheme is introduced, which converts the proposed noise-aware range kernel into a binary kernel while using the statistical hypothesis test method. Finally, blue a fully parallelized and pipelined very-large-scale integration (VLSI) architecture of a noise-aware bilateral filter (NABF) that is based on the proposed binary range kernel is presented, which was successfully implemented in field-programmable gate array (FPGA). The experimental results show that the proposed NABF is more robust to noise than the conventional bilateral filter under various noise conditions. Furthermore, the proposed VLSI design of the NABF achieves 10.5 and 95.7 times higher throughput and uses 63.6–97.5% less internal memory than state-of-the-art bilateral filter designs.
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15
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Harcombe DM, Ruppert MG, Fleming AJ. A review of demodulation techniques for multifrequency atomic force microscopy. Beilstein J Nanotechnol 2020; 11:76-91. [PMID: 31976199 PMCID: PMC6964647 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.11.8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/11/2019] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
This article compares the performance of traditional and recently proposed demodulators for multifrequency atomic force microscopy. The compared methods include the lock-in amplifier, coherent demodulator, Kalman filter, Lyapunov filter, and direct-design demodulator. Each method is implemented on a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) with a sampling rate of 1.5 MHz. The metrics for comparison include the sensitivity to other frequency components and the magnitude of demodulation artifacts for a range of demodulator bandwidths. Performance differences are demonstrated through higher harmonic atomic force microscopy imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Harcombe
- School of Electrical Engineering and Computing, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, 2308, Australia
| | - Michael G Ruppert
- School of Electrical Engineering and Computing, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, 2308, Australia
| | - Andrew J Fleming
- School of Electrical Engineering and Computing, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, 2308, Australia
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16
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Hao X, Yang S, Wang J, Deng B, Wei X, Yi G. Efficient Implementation of Cerebellar Purkinje Cell With the CORDIC Algorithm on LaCSNN. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:1078. [PMID: 31680818 PMCID: PMC6803503 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.01078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Purkinje cell is an important neuron for the cerebellar information processing. In this work, we present an efficient implementation of a cerebellar Purkinje model using the Coordinate Rotation Digital Computer (CORDIC) algorithm and implement it on a Large-Scale Conductance-Based Spiking Neural Networks (LaCSNN) system with cost-efficient multiplier-less methods, which are more suitable for large-scale neural networks. The CORDIC-based Purkinje model has been compared with the original model in terms of the voltage activities, dynamic mechanisms, precision, and hardware resource utilization. The results show that the CORDIC-based Purkinje model can reproduce the same biological activities and dynamical mechanisms as the original model with slight deviation. In the aspect of the hardware implementation, it can use only logic resources, so it provides an efficient way for maximizing the FPGA resource utilization, thereby expanding the scale of neural networks that can be implemented on FPGAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyu Hao
- School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Shuangming Yang
- School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Jiang Wang
- School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Bin Deng
- School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Xile Wei
- School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Guosheng Yi
- School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
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17
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Lin BS, Lin BS, Yen TH, Hsu CC, Wang YC. Design of Wearable Headset with Steady State Visually Evoked Potential-Based Brain Computer Interface. Micromachines (Basel) 2019; 10:mi10100681. [PMID: 31658616 PMCID: PMC6848923 DOI: 10.3390/mi10100681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2019] [Revised: 09/28/2019] [Accepted: 10/08/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Brain-computer interface (BCI) is a system that allows people to communicate directly with external machines via recognizing brain activities without manual operation. However, for most current BCI systems, conventional electroencephalography (EEG) machines and computers are usually required to acquire EEG signal and translate them into control commands, respectively. The sizes of the above machines are usually large, and this increases the limitation for daily applications. Moreover, conventional EEG electrodes also require conductive gels to improve the EEG signal quality. This causes discomfort and inconvenience of use, while the conductive gels may also encounter the problem of drying out during prolonged measurements. In order to improve the above issues, a wearable headset with steady-state visually evoked potential (SSVEP)-based BCI is proposed in this study. Active dry electrodes were designed and implemented to acquire a good EEG signal quality without conductive gels from the hairy site. The SSVEP BCI algorithm was also implemented into the designed field-programmable gate array (FPGA)-based BCI module to translate SSVEP signals into control commands in real time. Moreover, a commercial tablet was used as the visual stimulus device to provide graphic control icons. The whole system was designed as a wearable device to improve convenience of use in daily life, and it could acquire and translate EEG signal directly in the front-end headset. Finally, the performance of the proposed system was validated, and the results showed that it had excellent performance (information transfer rate = 36.08 bits/min).
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Affiliation(s)
- Bor-Shyh Lin
- Institute of Imaging and Biomedical Photonics, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu City 30010, Taiwan.
| | - Bor-Shing Lin
- Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, National Taipei University, New Taipei City 23741, Taiwan.
| | - Tzu-Hsiang Yen
- Institute of Imaging and Biomedical Photonics, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu City 30010, Taiwan.
| | - Chien-Chin Hsu
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Chi Mei Medical Center, Tainan City 71004, Taiwan.
| | - Yao-Chin Wang
- Department of Computer Science and Information Engineering, Cheng Shiu University, Kaohsiung City 83347, Taiwan.
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18
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Mata-Carballeira Ó, Gutiérrez-Zaballa J, Del Campo I, Martínez V. An FPGA-Based Neuro-Fuzzy Sensor for Personalized Driving Assistance. Sensors (Basel) 2019; 19:E4011. [PMID: 31533318 DOI: 10.3390/s19184011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2019] [Revised: 08/31/2019] [Accepted: 09/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Advanced driving-assistance systems (ADAS) are intended to automatize driver tasks, as well as improve driving and vehicle safety. This work proposes an intelligent neuro-fuzzy sensor for driving style (DS) recognition, suitable for ADAS enhancement. The development of the driving style intelligent sensor uses naturalistic driving data from the SHRP2 study, which includes data from a CAN bus, inertial measurement unit, and front radar. The system has been successfully implemented using a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) device of the Xilinx Zynq programmable system-on-chip (PSoC). It can mimic the typical timing parameters of a group of drivers as well as tune these typical parameters to model individual DSs. The neuro-fuzzy intelligent sensor provides high-speed real-time active ADAS implementation and is able to personalize its behavior into safe margins without driver intervention. In particular, the personalization procedure of the time headway (THW) parameter for an ACC in steady car following was developed, achieving a performance of 0.53 microseconds. This performance fulfilled the requirements of cutting-edge active ADAS specifications.
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19
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Zhang R, Zhou G, Zhang G, Zhou X, Huang J. RPC-Based Orthorectification for Satellite Images Using FPGA. Sensors (Basel) 2018; 18:s18082511. [PMID: 30071668 PMCID: PMC6111837 DOI: 10.3390/s18082511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2018] [Revised: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/28/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Conventional rational polynomial coefficients (RPC)-based orthorectification methods are unable to satisfy the demands of timely responses to terrorist attacks and disaster rescue. To accelerate the orthorectification processing speed, we propose an on-board orthorectification method, i.e., a field-programmable gate array (FPGA)-based fixed-point (FP)-RPC orthorectification method. The proposed RPC algorithm is first modified using fixed-point arithmetic. Then, the FP-RPC algorithm is implemented using an FPGA chip. The proposed method is divided into three main modules: a reading parameters module, a coordinate transformation module, and an interpolation module. Two datasets are applied to validate the processing speed and accuracy that are achievable. Compared to the RPC method implemented using Matlab on a personal computer, the throughputs from the proposed method and the Matlab-based RPC method are 675.67 Mpixels/s and 61,070.24 pixels/s, respectively. This means that the proposed method is approximately 11,000 times faster than the Matlab-based RPC method to process the same satellite images. Moreover, the root-mean-square errors (RMSEs) of the row coordinate (ΔI), column coordinate (ΔJ), and the distance ΔS are 0.35 pixels, 0.30 pixels, and 0.46 pixels, respectively, for the first study area; and, for the second study area, they are 0.27 pixels, 0.36 pixels, and 0.44 pixels, respectively, which satisfies the correction accuracy requirements in practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rongting Zhang
- School of Precision Instrument and Opto-Electronic Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Spatial Information and Geomatics, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin 541004, China.
- The Center for Remote Sensing, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
| | - Guoqing Zhou
- School of Precision Instrument and Opto-Electronic Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Spatial Information and Geomatics, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin 541004, China.
- The Center for Remote Sensing, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
- School of Microelectronics, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
| | - Guangyun Zhang
- The Center for Remote Sensing, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
| | - Xiang Zhou
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Spatial Information and Geomatics, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin 541004, China.
- The Center for Remote Sensing, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
- School of Microelectronics, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
| | - Jingjin Huang
- School of Precision Instrument and Opto-Electronic Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
- Guangxi Key Laboratory for Spatial Information and Geomatics, Guilin University of Technology, Guilin 541004, China.
- The Center for Remote Sensing, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China.
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20
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Harcombe DM, Ruppert MG, Ragazzon MRP, Fleming AJ. Lyapunov estimation for high-speed demodulation in multifrequency atomic force microscopy. Beilstein J Nanotechnol 2018. [PMID: 29515961 PMCID: PMC5815288 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.9.47] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
An important issue in the emerging field of multifrequency atomic force microscopy (MF-AFM) is the accurate and fast demodulation of the cantilever-tip deflection signal. As this signal consists of multiple frequency components and noise processes, a lock-in amplifier is typically employed for its narrowband response. However, this demodulator suffers inherent bandwidth limitations as high-frequency mixing products must be filtered out and several must be operated in parallel. Many MF-AFM methods require amplitude and phase demodulation at multiple frequencies of interest, enabling both z-axis feedback and phase contrast imaging to be achieved. This article proposes a model-based multifrequency Lyapunov filter implemented on a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) for high-speed MF-AFM demodulation. System descriptions and simulations are verified by experimental results demonstrating high tracking bandwidths, strong off-mode rejection and minor sensitivity to cross-coupling effects. Additionally, a five-frequency system operating at 3.5 MHz is implemented for higher harmonic amplitude and phase imaging up to 1 MHz.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Harcombe
- School of Electrical Engineering and Computing, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, 2308, Australia
| | - Michael G Ruppert
- School of Electrical Engineering and Computing, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, 2308, Australia
| | - Michael R P Ragazzon
- Department of Engineering Cybernetics, NTNU, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Andrew J Fleming
- School of Electrical Engineering and Computing, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW, 2308, Australia
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Wang JHS, Qiu KF, Chao PCP. Control Design and Digital Implementation of a Fast 2-Degree-of-Freedom Translational Optical Image Stabilizer for Image Sensors in Mobile Camera Phones. Sensors (Basel) 2017; 17:s17102333. [PMID: 29027950 PMCID: PMC5677240 DOI: 10.3390/s17102333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2017] [Revised: 09/29/2017] [Accepted: 10/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
This study presents design, digital implementation and performance validation of a lead-lag controller for a 2-degree-of-freedom (DOF) translational optical image stabilizer (OIS) installed with a digital image sensor in mobile camera phones. Nowadays, OIS is an important feature of modern commercial mobile camera phones, which aims to mechanically reduce the image blur caused by hand shaking while shooting photos. The OIS developed in this study is able to move the imaging lens by actuating its voice coil motors (VCMs) at the required speed to the position that significantly compensates for imaging blurs by hand shaking. The compensation proposed is made possible by first establishing the exact, nonlinear equations of motion (EOMs) for the OIS, which is followed by designing a simple lead-lag controller based on established nonlinear EOMs for simple digital computation via a field-programmable gate array (FPGA) board in order to achieve fast response. Finally, experimental validation is conducted to show the favorable performance of the designed OIS; i.e., it is able to stabilize the lens holder to the desired position within 0.02 s, which is much less than previously reported times of around 0.1 s. Also, the resulting residual vibration is less than 2.2–2.5 μm, which is commensurate to the very small pixel size found in most of commercial image sensors; thus, significantly minimizing image blur caused by hand shaking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy H-S Wang
- Institute of Electrical and Control Engineering, National Chaio Tung University, Hsinchu City 300, Taiwan.
| | - Kang-Fu Qiu
- Institute of Electrical and Control Engineering, National Chaio Tung University, Hsinchu City 300, Taiwan.
| | - Paul C-P Chao
- Institute of Electrical and Control Engineering, National Chaio Tung University, Hsinchu City 300, Taiwan.
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22
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Viseh S, Ghovanloo M, Mohsenin T. Toward an Ultralow-Power Onboard Processor for Tongue Drive System. IEEE Trans Circuits Syst II Express Briefs 2015; 62:174-178. [PMID: 26185489 PMCID: PMC4500193 DOI: 10.1109/tcsii.2014.2387683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The Tongue Drive System (TDS) is a new unobtrusive, wireless, and wearable assistive device that allows for real-time tracking of the voluntary tongue motion in the oral space for communication, control, and navigation applications. The latest TDS prototype appears as a wireless headphone and has been tested in human subject trials. However, the robustness of the external TDS (eTDS) in real-life outdoor conditions may not meet safety regulations because of the limited mechanical stability of the headset. The intraoral TDS (iTDS), which is in the shape of a dental retainer, firmly clasps to the upper teeth and resists sensor misplacement. However, the iTDS has more restrictions on its dimensions, limiting the battery size and consequently requiring a considerable reduction in its power consumption to operate over an extended period of two days on a single charge. In this brief, we propose an ultralow-power local processor for the TDS that performs all signal processing on the transmitter side, following the sensors. Assuming the TDS user on average issuing one command/s, implementing the computational engine reduces the data volume that needs to be wirelessly transmitted to a PC or smartphone by a factor of 1500×, from 12 kb/s to ~8 b/s. The proposed design is implemented on an ultralow-power IGLOO nano field-programmable gate array (FPGA) and is tested on AGLN250 prototype board. According to our post-place-and-route results, implementing the engine on the FPGA significantly drops the required data transmission, while an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) implementation in a 65-nm CMOS results in a 15× power saving compared to the FPGA solution and occupies a 0.02-mm2 footprint. As a result, the power consumption and size of the iTDS will be significantly reduced through the use of a much smaller rechargeable battery. Moreover, the system can operate longer following every recharge, improving the iTDS usability.
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23
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Marchan-Hernandez JF, Camps A, Rodriguez-Alvarez N, Bosch-Lluis X, Ramos-Perez I, Valencia E. PAU/GNSS-R: Implementation, Performance and First Results of a Real-Time Delay-Doppler Map Reflectometer Using Global Navigation Satellite System Signals. Sensors (Basel) 2008; 8:3005-3019. [PMID: 27879862 PMCID: PMC3675528 DOI: 10.3390/s8053005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2007] [Accepted: 04/24/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Signals from Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) were originally conceived for position and speed determination, but they can be used as signals of opportunity as well. The reflection process over a given surface modifies the properties of the scattered signal, and therefore, by processing the reflected signal, relevant geophysical data regarding the surface under study (land, sea, ice…) can be retrieved. In essence, a GNSS-R receiver is a multi-channel GNSS receiver that computes the received power from a given satellite at a number of different delay and Doppler bins of the incoming signal. The first approaches to build such a receiver consisted of sampling and storing the scattered signal for later post-processing. However, a real-time approach to the problem is desirable to obtain immediately useful geophysical variables and reduce the amount of data. The use of FPGA technology makes this possible, while at the same time the system can be easily reconfigured. The signal tracking and processing constraints made necessary to fully design several new blocks. The uniqueness of the implemented system described in this work is the capability to compute in real-time Delay-Doppler maps (DDMs) either for four simultaneous satellites or just one, but with a larger number of bins. The first tests have been conducted from a cliff over the sea and demonstrate the successful performance of the instrument to compute DDMs in real-time from the measured reflected GNSS/R signals. The processing of these measurements shall yield quantitative relationships between the sea state (mainly driven by the surface wind and the swell) and the overall DDM shape. The ultimate goal is to use the DDM shape to correct the sea state influence on the L-band brightness temperature to improve the retrieval of the sea surface salinity (SSS).
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Fernando Marchan-Hernandez
- Remote Sensing Lab, Dept. Teoria del Senyal i Comunicacions, Campus Nord D3, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Adriano Camps
- Remote Sensing Lab, Dept. Teoria del Senyal i Comunicacions, Campus Nord D3, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Nereida Rodriguez-Alvarez
- Remote Sensing Lab, Dept. Teoria del Senyal i Comunicacions, Campus Nord D3, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Xavier Bosch-Lluis
- Remote Sensing Lab, Dept. Teoria del Senyal i Comunicacions, Campus Nord D3, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Isaac Ramos-Perez
- Remote Sensing Lab, Dept. Teoria del Senyal i Comunicacions, Campus Nord D3, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Enric Valencia
- Remote Sensing Lab, Dept. Teoria del Senyal i Comunicacions, Campus Nord D3, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
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