Pathomechanistic Networks of Motor System Injury in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS) is the most common, adult-onset, progressive motor neurodegenerative disorder that results in death within 3 years of the clinical diagnosis. Due to the clinicopathological heterogeneity, any reliable biomarkers for diagnosis or prognosis of ALS have not been identified till date. Moreover, the only three clinically approved treatments are not uniformly effective in slowing the disease progression. Over the last 15 years, there has been a rapid advancement in research on the complex pathomechanistic landscape of ALS that has opened up new avenues for successful clinical translation of targeted therapeutics. Multiple studies suggest that the age-dependent interaction of risk-associated genes with environmental factors and endogenous modifiers is critical to the multi-step process of ALS pathogenesis. In this review, we provide an updated discussion on the dysregulated cross-talk between intracellular homeostasis processes, the unique molecular networks across selectively vulnerable cell types, and the multisystemic nature of ALS pathomechanisms. Importantly, this work highlights the alteration in epigenetic and epitranscriptomic landscape due to gene-environment interactions, which have been largely overlooked in the context of ALS pathology. Finally, we suggest that precision medicine research in ALS will be largely benefitted from the stratification of patient groups based on the clinical phenotype, onset and progression, genome, exposome, and metabolic identities.

Apolipoprotein L1 Genotypes and the Association of Urinary Potassium Excretion with CKD Progression

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Progressive CKD in Black individuals is strongly associated with polymorphisms in the APOL1 gene, but it is unknown whether dietary risk factors for CKD progression vary in high- versus low-risk APOL1 genotypes. We investigated if APOL1 genotypes modify associations of dietary potassium and sodium with CKD progression and death.

DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS

We analyzed 1399 self-identified Black participants enrolled in the Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort from April 2003 to September 2008. Exposures were calibrated 24-hour urine potassium and sodium excretion. The primary outcome was CKD progression defined as the time to 50% decline in eGFR or kidney failure. The secondary outcome was CKD progression or death. We tested for an interaction between urinary potassium and sodium excretion and APOL1 genotypes.

RESULTS

Median 24-hour urinary sodium and potassium excretions in Black participants were 150 mmol (interquartile range, 118-188) and 43 mmol (interquartile range, 35-54), respectively. Individuals with high- and low-risk APOL1 genotypes numbered 276 (20%) and 1104 (79%), respectively. After a median follow-up of 5.23 years, CKD progression events equaled 605, and after 7.29 years, CKD progression and death events equaled 868. There was significant interaction between APOL1 genotypes and urinary potassium excretion with CKD progression and CKD progression or death (P=0.003 and P=0.03, respectively). In those with high-risk APOL1 genotypes, higher urinary potassium excretion was associated with a lower risk of CKD progression (quartiles 2-4 versus 1: hazard ratio, 0.83; 95% confidence interval, 0.50 to 1.39; hazard ratio, 0.54; 95% confidence interval, 0.31 to 0.93; and hazard ratio, 0.50; 95% confidence interval, 0.27 to 0.93, respectively). In the low-risk APOL1 genotypes, higher urinary potassium excretion was associated with a higher risk of CKD progression (quartiles 2-4 versus 1: hazard ratio, 1.01; 95% confidence interval, 0.75 to 1.36; hazard ratio, 1.23; 95% confidence interval, 0.91 to 1.66; and hazard ratio, 1.53; 95% confidence interval, 1.12 to 2.09, respectively). We found no interaction between APOL1 genotypes and urinary sodium excretion with CKD outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher urinary potassium excretion was associated with lower versus higher risk of CKD progression in APOL1 high-risk and low-risk genotypes, respectively.

HLA-G 3'UTR polymorphisms & response to a yoga-based lifestyle intervention in rheumatoid arthritis: A randomized controlled trial

Background & objectives

Human leucocyte antigen (HLA)-G plays a vital role in immunomodulation in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The mounting evidence suggests a link between HLA-G gene polymorphisms, disease susceptibility and methotrexate treatment response. Various environmental factors influence the onset and progression of RA and its treatment outcomes. The aim is to identify the treatment response of HLA-G 3' untranslated region polymorphisms to yoga-based lifestyle intervention (YBLI).

Methods

In this eight-week single-blinded randomized controlled trial (CTRI/2017/05/008589), patients with RA (n=140) were randomized into two groups namely, yoga group or non-yoga group. Baseline genomic DNA was isolated using salting-out method. PCR-based methods were used for genotyping. The levels of soluble (s) HLA-G and disease activity were assessed by ELISA and disease activity score-28-erythrocyte sedimentation rate (DAS28-ESR), respectively, at baseline (day 0) and after eight weeks of intervention.

Results

Low-producing sHLA-G genotypes, i.e. +3142GG and 14 bp ins/ins, showed a significant increase in sHLA-G levels after YBLI. The association analysis between HLA-G polymorphisms and treatment for RA showed no considerable differential treatment remission in either of the groups (P>0.05). The percentages of improvement were higher in the yoga group as compared to the non-yoga group in both the HLA-G +3142G>C and 14 bp ins/del polymorphisms irrespective of their respective genotypes. No significant association was found between sHLA-G levels and disease activity with respect to genotypes.

Interpretation & conclusions

Yoga intervention results in improvement and reduced severity of RA in patients irrespective of the HLA-G 14 bp ins/del or +3142G>C polymorphisms. YBLI may be used as an adjunct therapy in RA independent of the genotypes.

Lack of Support for the Genes by Early Environment Interaction Hypothesis in the Pathogenesis of Schizophrenia

Ursini et al reported recently that the liability of schizophrenia explained by a polygenic risk score (PRS) derived from the variants most associated with schizophrenia was increased 5-fold in individuals who experienced complications during pregnancy or birth. Follow-up gene expression analysis showed that the genes mapping to the most associated genetic variants are highly expressed in placental tissues. If confirmed, these findings will have major implications in our understanding of the joint effect of genes and environment in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia. We examined the interplay between PRS and obstetric complications (OCs) in 5 independent samples (effective N = 2110). OCs were assessed with the full or modified Lewis-Murray scale, or with birth weight < 2.5 kg as a proxy. In a large cohort we tested whether the pathways from placenta-relevant variants in the original report were associated with case-control status. Unlike in the original study, we did not find significant effect of PRS on the presence of OCs in cases, nor a substantial difference in the association of PRS with case-control status in samples stratified by the presence of OCs. Furthermore, none of the PRS by OCs interactions were significant, nor were any of the biological pathways, examined in the Swedish cohort. Our study could not support the hypothesis of a mediating effect of placenta biology in the pathway from genes to schizophrenia. Methodology differences, in particular the different scales measuring OCs, as well as power constraints for interaction analyses in both studies, may explain this discrepancy.

Interaction of Alzheimer's Disease-Associated Genetic Risk with Indicators of Socioeconomic Position on Mild Cognitive Impairment in the Heinz Nixdorf Recall Study

BACKGROUND

The apolipoprotein E (APOE) ɛ4 allele is reported to be a strong genetic risk factor for mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Additional genetic loci have been detected that influence the risk for late-onset AD. As socioeconomic position (SEP) is also strongly related to cognitive decline, SEP has been suggested to be a possible modifier of the genetic effect on MCI.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether APOEɛ4 and a genetic sum score of AD-associated risk alleles (GRSAD) interact with SEP indicators to affect MCI in a population-based cohort.

METHODS

Using data of 3,834 participants of the Heinz Nixdorf Recall Study, APOEɛ4 and GRSAD by SEP interactions were assessed using logistic regression models, as well as SEP-stratified genetic association analysis. Interaction on additive scale was calculated using the relative excess risk due to interaction (RERI). All analysis were additionally stratified by sex.

RESULTS

Indication for interaction on the additive scale was found between APOEɛ4 and low education on MCI (RERI: 0.52 [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.01; 1.03]). The strongest genetic effects of the APOEɛ4 genotype on MCI were observed in groups of low education (Odds ratio (OR): 1.46 [95% CI: 0.79; 2.63] for≤10 years of education versus OR: 1.00 [95% CI: 0.43; 2.14] for≥18 years of education). Sex stratified results showed stronger effects in women. No indication for interaction between the GRSAD and SEP indicators on MCI was observed.

CONCLUSION

Results indicate that low education may have an impact on APOEɛ4 expression on MCI, especially among women.

A Microphysiological Approach to Evaluate Effectors of Intercellular Hedgehog Signaling in Development

Paracrine signaling in the tissue microenvironment is a central mediator of morphogenesis, and modeling this dynamic intercellular activity in vitro is critical to understanding normal and abnormal development. For example, Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) signaling is a conserved mechanism involved in multiple developmental processes and strongly linked to human birth defects including orofacial clefts of the lip and palate. SHH ligand produced, processed, and secreted from the epithelial ectoderm is shuttled through the extracellular matrix where it binds mesenchymal receptors, establishing a gradient of transcriptional response that drives orofacial morphogenesis. In humans, complex interactions of genetic predispositions and environmental insults acting on diverse molecular targets are thought to underlie orofacial cleft etiology. Consequently, there is a need for tractable in vitro approaches that model this complex cellular and environmental interplay and are sensitive to disruption across the multistep signaling cascade. We developed a microplate-based device that supports an epithelium directly overlaid onto an extracellular matrix-embedded mesenchyme, mimicking the basic tissue architecture of developing orofacial tissues. SHH ligand produced from the epithelium generated a gradient of SHH-driven transcription in the adjacent mesenchyme, recapitulating the gradient of pathway activity observed in vivo. Shh pathway activation was antagonized by small molecule inhibitors of epithelial secretory, extracellular matrix transport, and mesenchymal sensing targets, supporting the use of this approach in high-content chemical screening of the complete Shh pathway. Together, these findings demonstrate a novel and practical microphysiological model with broad utility for investigating epithelial-mesenchymal interactions and environmental signaling disruptions in development.

Learning is enhanced by tailoring instruction to individual genetic differences

It is widely argued that personalized instruction based on individual differences in learning styles or genetic predispositions could improve learning outcomes. However, this proposition has resisted clear demonstration in human studies, where it is difficult to control experience and quantify outcomes. Here, we take advantage of the tractable nature of vocal learning in songbirds (Lonchura striata domestica) to test the idea that matching instruction to individual genetic predispositions can enhance learning. We use both cross-fostering and computerized instruction with synthetic songs to demonstrate that matching the tutor song to individual predispositions can improve learning across genetic backgrounds. Moreover, we find that optimizing instruction in this fashion can equalize learning differences across individuals that might otherwise be construed as genetically determined. Our results demonstrate potent, synergistic interactions between experience and genetics in shaping song, and indicate the likely importance of such interactions for other complex learned behaviors.

Attachment style moderates effects of FKBP5 polymorphisms and childhood abuse on post-traumatic stress symptoms: Results from the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study

Objectives: To determine the main and interactive effects of four FKBP5 polymorphisms (rs9296158, rs3800373, rs1360780 and rs9470080), childhood abuse and attachment style in predicting severity of PTSD symptoms in two independent, nationally representative samples of US military veterans. Methods: Data were analysed from two independent samples of European-American US military veterans who participated in the National Health and Resilience in Veterans Study (N = 1,585 and 577 respectively). Results: Results revealed that carriage of two FKBP5 minor alleles, childhood abuse and insecure attachment style were associated with greater severity of PTSD symptoms. Gene × environment interactions were also observed, with the interaction of FKBP5 homozygous minor allele carriage and history of childhood abuse associated with greater severity of PTSD symptoms; however, these effects were fully counteracted by secure attachment style. Conclusions: Results of this study build on prior work demonstrating a gene × environment interaction between FKBP5 polymorphisms and childhood abuse in predicting risk for PTSD by suggesting that attachment style may moderate this effect. This study has implications for prevention and treatment efforts designed to promote a secure attachment style in veterans with high-risk FKBP5 genotypes and childhood abuse histories.

Gene Lifestyle Interactions With Relation to Obesity, Cardiometabolic, and Cardiovascular Traits Among South Asians

The rapid rise of obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and cardiovascular disease (CVD) during the last few decades among South Asians has been largely attributed to a major shift in lifestyles including physical inactivity, unhealthy dietary patterns, and an overall pattern of sedentary lifestyle. Genetic predisposition to these cardiometabolic risk factors may have interacted with these obesogenic environments in determining the higher cardiometabolic disease prevalence. Based on the premise that gene-environment interactions cause obesity and cardiometabolic diseases, we systematically searched the literature and considered the knowledge gaps that future studies might fulfill. We identified only seven published studies that focused specifically on gene-environment interactions for cardiometabolic traits in South Asians, most of which were limited by relatively small sample and lack of replication. Some studies reported that the differences in metabolic response to higher physical activity and low caloric diet might be modified by genetic risk related to these cardiometabolic traits. Although studies on gene lifestyle interactions in cardiometabolic traits report significant interactions, future studies must focus on more precise assessment of lifestyle factors, investigation of a larger set of genetic variants and the application of powerful statistical methods to facilitate translatable approaches. Future studies should also be integrated with findings both using mechanistic studies through laboratory settings and randomized clinical trials for clinical outcomes.

Disrupted-in-Schizophrenia 1 (DISC1) Overexpression and Juvenile Immune Activation Cause Sex-Specific Schizophrenia-Related Psychopathology in Rats

Synaptic pruning is a critical refinement step during neurodevelopment, and schizophrenia has been associated with overpruning of cortical dendritic spines. Both human studies and animal models implicate disrupted-in-schizophrenia 1 (DISC1) gene as a strong susceptibility factor for schizophrenia. Accumulating evidence supports the involvement of DISC1 protein in the modulation of synaptic elimination during critical periods of neurodevelopment and of dopamine D2-receptor-mediated signaling during adulthood. In many species, synaptic pruning occurs during juvenile and adolescent periods and is mediated by microglia, which can be over-activated by an immune challenge, giving rise to overpruning. Therefore, we sought to investigate possible interactions between a transgenic DISC1 model (tgDISC1) and juvenile immune activation (JIA) by the bacterial cell wall endotoxin lipopolysaccharide on the induction of schizophrenia-related behavioral and neurochemical disruptions in adult female and male rats. We examined possible behavioral aberrations along three major symptom dimensions of schizophrenia including psychosis, social and emotional disruptions, and cognitive impairments. We detected significant gene-environment interactions in the amphetamine-induced locomotion in female animals and in the amphetamine-induced anxiety in male animals. Surprisingly, gene-environment interactions improved social memory in both male and female animals. JIA alone disrupted spatial memory and recognition memory, but only in male animals. DISC1 overexpression alone induced an improvement in sensorimotor gating, but only in female animals. Our neurochemical analyses detected sex- and manipulation-dependent changes in the postmortem monoamine content of animals. Taken together, we here report sex-specific effects of environment and genotype as well as their interaction on behavioral phenotypes and neurochemical profiles relevant for schizophrenia.

Parent depressive symptomatology moderates the etiology of externalizing behavior in childhood: An examination of gene-environment interaction effects

Parent depressive symptomatology is robust risk factor for externalizing behavior in childhood (Goodman et al., 2011). Although the precise mechanisms underlying this association have yet to be fully illuminated, there is some evidence that parent depression can impact externalizing behavior via both genetic and environmental pathways. In the current study, we investigated the extent to which genetic and environmental influences on externalizing behavior are moderated by parent depressive symptoms (i.e., genotype-environment interaction) in a sample of 2,060, 6- to 11-year-old twins. Results suggest that genetic influences explain more variance in externalizing behavior as maternal depressive symptoms increase, whereas shared environmental effects decrease. These findings were specific to maternal depressive symptoms, however, and did not extend to not paternal depressive symptoms. Findings are critical for understanding the role of parental depression as a risk factor for problematic child behavior, and informing programs that seek to minimize the impact of this risk factor. (PsycINFO Database Record

Absence of Wdr13 Gene Predisposes Mice to Mild Social Isolation - Chronic Stress, Leading to Depression-Like Phenotype Associated With Differential Expression of Synaptic Proteins

We earlier reported that the male mice lacking the Wdr13 gene (Wdr13^-/0) showed mild anxiety, better memory retention, and up-regulation of synaptic proteins in the hippocampus. With increasing evidences from parallel studies in our laboratory about the possible role of Wdr13 in stress response, we investigated its role in brain. We observed that Wdr13 transcript gets up-regulated in the hippocampus of the wild-type mice exposed to stress. To further dissect its function, we analyzed the behavioral and molecular phenotypes of Wdr13^-/0 mice when subjected to mild chronic psychological stress, namely; mild (attenuated) social isolation. We employed iTRAQ based quantitative proteomics, real time PCR and western blotting to investigate molecular changes. Three weeks of social isolation predisposed Wdr13^-/0 mice to anhedonia, heightened anxiety-measured by Open field test (OFT), increased behavior despair- measured by Forced swim test (FST) and reduced dendritic branching along with decreased spine density of hippocampal CA1 neurons as compared to wild-type counterparts. This depression-like-phenotype was however ameliorated when treated with anti-depressant imipramine. Molecular analysis revealed that out of 1002 quantified proteins [1% False discovery rate (FDR), at-least two unique peptides], strikingly, a significant proportion of synaptic proteins including, SYN1, CAMK2A, and RAB3A were down-regulated in the socially isolated Wdr13^-/0 mice as compared to its wild-type counterparts. This was in contrast to the elevated levels of these proteins in non-stressed mutants as compared to the controls. We hypothesized that a de-regulated transcription factor upstream of the synaptic genes might be responsible for the observed phenotype. Indeed, in the socially isolated Wdr13^-/0 mice, there was an up-regulation of GATA1 – a transcription factor that negatively regulates synaptic genes and has been associated with Major Depression (MD) in humans. The present study demonstrates significant genotype × enviornment interaction for Wdr13 gene as shown by the reversal in the expression levels of several synaptic proteins in the mutant vis-à-vis wild-type mouse when exposed to social isolation stress.

Personalized management of asthma exacerbations: lessons from genetic studies

INTRODUCTION

The genetics of severe asthma and asthma exacerbations are distinct from milder forms of asthma. Gene-environmental interactions contribute to the complexity and heterogeneity of severe asthma and asthma exacerbations, and pharmacogenomic studies have also identified genes that affect susceptibility to asthma exacerbations.

AREAS COVERED

Studies on the genetics, gene-environment interactions, and pharmacogenomics of asthma exacerbations are reviewed. Multiple individual genetic variants have been identified to be associated with asthma exacerbations but each genetic polymorphism explains only a fraction of the disease and by itself is not able to translate into clinical practice. Research is shifting from candidate gene studies and genome wide association studies towards more integrative approaches to translate genetic findings into clinical diagnostic and therapeutic tools.

EXPERT COMMENTARY

Integrative approaches combining polygenic or genomic data with multi-omics technologies have the potential to discover new biologic mechanisms and biomarkers for severe asthma and asthma exacerbations. Greater understanding of genomics and underlying biologic pathways will also lead to improved prevention and treatment, lowering costs, morbidity, and mortality. The utilization of genomic testing and personalized medicine may revolutionize asthma management, in particular for patients with severe, refractory asthma.

Characterization of a REST-Regulated Internal Promoter in the Schizophrenia Genome-Wide Associated Gene MIR137

MIR137 has been identified as a candidate gene for schizophrenia from genome-wide association studies via association with an intronic single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), rs1625579. The location of the SNP suggests one mechanism in which transcriptional or posttranscriptional regulation of miR-137 expression could underlie schizophrenia. We identified and validated a novel promoter of the MIR137 gene adjacent to miR-137 itself which can direct the expression of distinct mRNA isoforms encoding miR-137. Analysis of both endogenous gene expression and reporter gene assays determined that this internal promoter is regulated by repressor element-1 silencing transcription factor (REST), which has previously been associated with pathways linked to schizophrenia. Distinct isoforms of REST mediate differential expression at this locus, suggesting the relative levels of these isoforms are important for miR-137 expression profiles. The internal promoter contains a variable number tandem repeat (VNTR) domain adjacent to the pre-miR-137 sequence. The reporter gene activity directed by this promoter was modified by the genotype of the VNTR. Differential expression was also observed in response to cocaine, which is known to regulate the REST pathway in SH-SY5Y cells. Our data support the hypothesis that a "gene × environment" interaction could modify the level of miR-137 expression via this internal promoter and that the genotype of the VNTR could modulate transcriptional responses. We demonstrate that this promoter region is not in disequilibrium with rs1625579 and therefore would supply a distinct pathway to potentially alter miR-137 levels in response to environmental cues.

Developmental effects of serotonin 1A autoreceptors on anxiety and social behavior

The serotonin 1A receptor (5-HT1A) has a major role in modulating the effects of serotonin on mood and behavior. Previous studies have shown that knockout of 5-HT1A selectively in the raphe leads to higher levels of anxiety during adulthood. However, it remains unclear whether this phenotype is due to variation in receptor levels specifically during development or throughout life. To test the hypothesis that developmental sensitivity may underlie the effects of 5-HT1A on anxiety, we used an inducible transgenic system to selectively suppress 5-HT1A levels in serotonergic raphe neurons from post-natal days (P) 14 to P30, with a maximal reduction of 40% at P21 and return to regular levels by P30. This developmental decrease in receptor levels has long-lasting consequences, increasing anxiety and decreasing social investigation in adulthood. In addition, post-natal knockdown of autoreceptors leads to long-term increases in the excitability of serotonergic neurons, which may represent a mechanism underlying the effects of post-natal receptor variation on behavior later in life. Finally, we also examined the interplay between receptor variation and juvenile exposure to stress (applied from P14 to P21). Similar to receptor knockdown, juvenile exposure to stress led to increased anxiety phenotypes but did not exacerbate 5-HT1A knockdown-mediated anxiety levels. This work indicates that the effects of 5-HT1A autoreceptors on anxiety and social behaviors are developmentally mediated and suggests that natural variations in the expression of 5-HT1A may act during development to influence individual anxiety levels and contribute to susceptibility to anxiety disorders.

Refining the Candidate Environment: Interpersonal Stress, the Serotonin Transporter Polymorphism, and Gene-Environment Interactions in Major Depression

Meta-analytic evidence supports a gene-environment (G×E) interaction between life stress and the serotonin transporter polymorphism (5-HTTLPR) on depression, but few studies have examined factors that influence detection of this effect, despite years of inconsistent results. We propose that the "candidate environment" (akin to a candidate gene) is key. Theory and evidence implicate major stressful life events (SLEs)-particularly major interpersonal SLEs-as well as chronic family stress. Participants (N = 400) from the Youth Emotion Project (which began with 627 high school juniors oversampled for high neuroticism) completed up to five annual diagnostic and life stress interviews and provided DNA samples. A significant G×E effect for major SLEs and S-carrier genotype was accounted for significantly by major interpersonal SLEs but not significantly by major non-interpersonal SLEs. S-carrier genotype and chronic family stress also significantly interacted. Identifying such candidate environments may facilitate future G×E research in depression and psychopathology more broadly.

Analysis of the toxicogenomic effects of exposure to persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in Slovakian girls: correlations between gene expression and disease risk

The chemical composition of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the environment is not uniform throughout the world, and these contaminants contain many structurally different lipophilic compounds. In a well-defined study cohort in the Slovak Republic, the POP chemicals present in the peripheral blood of exposed children were chemically analyzed. The chemical analysis data revealed that the relative concentration and profile of structurally different organic pollutants, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 2,2'-bis(4-chlorophenyl)-1,1-dichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE), 2,2'-bis(4-chlorophenyl)-1,1,1-trichloro-ethane (p,p'-DDT), hexachlorobenzene (HCB) and β-hexachlorocyclohexane (β-HCH), may vary from individual to individual, even within the same exposure area. These chemicals can be broadly classified into two groups. The first group, the PCB congeners, primarily originated from industrial compounds and their byproducts. The second group of compounds originated from or was commonly used in the agricultural sector (e.g., DDT, HCB). The objective of this study was to examine the effects of the two POP exposure profiles on gene expression. For the study population, we selected pre-pubertal girls (mean age of 46.2±1.4 months) with high POP concentrations in their blood (>75% tile of total POP) and classified them in the high 'PCB' group when the total PCB concentration was significantly higher than the total concentration of other POP components and in the 'Other Than PCB' (OTP) group, when the total PCB concentration was significantly lower than the concentration of the other major POP constituents. A matched control group of girls (<25% tile of total POP) was selected for comparison purpose (n=5 per group). Our aims were to determine whether there were any common effects of high POP exposure at a toxicogenomic level and to investigate how exposure may affect physiological functions of the children in two different exposure scenarios. Global gene expression analysis using a microarray (Affymetrix Gene Chip Human genome U133 Plus 2.0 Array) platform was conducted on the total RNA of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from the girls. The results were analyzed by Partek GS, Louis, MI, which identified twelve genes (ATAD2B, BIVM, CD96, CXorf39, CYTH1 ETNK1, FAM13A, HIRA, INO80B, ODG1, RAD23B, and TSGA14) and two unidentified probe sets, as regulated differentially in both the PCB and OTP groups against the control group. The qRT-PCR method was used to validate the microarray results. The Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) software package identified the possible molecular impairments and disease risks associated with each gene set. Connective tissue disorders, genetic disorders, skeletal muscular disorders and neurological diseases were associated with the 12 common genes. The data therefore identified the potential molecular effects of POP exposure on a genomic level. This report underscores the importance of further study to validate the results in a random population and to evaluate the use of the identified genes as biomarkers for POP exposure.

Moderation of adult depression by a polymorphism in the FKBP5 gene and childhood physical abuse in the general population

Childhood maltreatment and depressive disorders have both been associated with a dysregulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis. The FKBP5 gene codes for a co-chaperone regulating the glucocorticoid-receptor sensitivity. Previous evidence suggests that subjects carrying the TT genotype of the FKBP5 gene single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) rs1360780 have an increased susceptibility to adverse effects of experimental stress. We therefore tested the hypothesis of an interaction of childhood abuse with rs1360780 in predicting adult depression. In all, 2157 Caucasian subjects from the Study of Health in Pomerania (German general population) completed the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II) and Childhood Trauma Questionnaire. The DSM-IV diagnosis of major depressive disorder (MDD) was assessed by interview. Genotypes of rs1360780 were taken from the Affymetrix Human SNP Array 6.0. Significant interaction (p=0.006) of physical abuse with the TT genotype of rs1360780 was found increasing the BDI-II score to 17.4 (95% confidence interval (CI)=12.0-22.9) compared with 10.0 (8.2-11.7) in exposed CC/CT carriers. Likewise, the adjusted odds ratio for MDD in exposed TT carriers was 8.2 (95% CI=1.9-35.0) compared with 1.3 (0.8-2.3) in exposed subjects with CC/CT genotypes. Relative excess risk due to interaction (RERI) analyses confirmed a significant additive interaction effect (RERI=6.8; 95% CI=0.64-33.7; p<0.05). In explorative analyses, the most severe degree of sexual and emotional abuse also yielded significant interaction effects (p<0.05). This study revealed interactions between physical abuse and rs1360780 of the FKBP5 gene, confirming its role in the individual susceptibility to depression. Given the large effect sizes, rs1360780 could be included into prediction models for depression in individuals exposed to childhood abuse.

Schizophrenia susceptibility genes directly implicated in the life cycles of pathogens: cytomegalovirus, influenza, herpes simplex, rubella, and Toxoplasma gondii

Many genes implicated in schizophrenia can be related to glutamatergic transmission and neuroplasticity, oligodendrocyte function, and other families clearly related to neurobiology and schizophrenia phenotypes. Others appear rather to be involved in the life cycles of the pathogens implicated in the disease. For example, aspartylglucosaminidase (AGA), PLA2, SIAT8B, GALNT7, or B3GAT1 metabolize chemical ligands to which the influenza virus, herpes simplex, cytomegalovirus (CMV), rubella, or Toxoplasma gondii bind. The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGR/EGFR) is used by the CMV to gain entry to cells, and a CMV gene codes for an interleukin (IL-10) mimic that binds the host cognate receptor, IL10R. The fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR1) is used by herpes simplex. KPNA3 and RANBP5 control the nuclear import of the influenza virus. Disrupted in schizophrenia 1 (DISC1) controls the microtubule network that is used by viruses as a route to the nucleus, while DTNBP1, MUTED, and BLOC1S3 regulate endosomal to lysosomal routing that is also important in viral traffic. Neuregulin 1 activates ERBB receptors releasing a factor, EBP1, known to inhibit the influenza virus transcriptase. Other viral or bacterial components bind to genes or proteins encoded by CALR, FEZ1, FYN, HSPA1B, IL2, HTR2A, KPNA3, MED12, MED15, MICB, NQO2, PAX6, PIK3C3, RANBP5, or TP53, while the cerebral infectivity of the herpes simplex virus is modified by Apolipoprotein E (APOE). Genes encoding for proteins related to the innate immune response, including cytokine related (CCR5, CSF2RA, CSF2RB, IL1B, IL1RN, IL2, IL3, IL3RA, IL4, IL10, IL10RA, IL18RAP, lymphotoxin-alpha, tumor necrosis factor alpha [TNF]), human leukocyte antigen (HLA) antigens (HLA-A10, HLA-B, HLA-DRB1), and genes involved in antigen processing (angiotensin-converting enzyme and tripeptidyl peptidase 2) are all concerned with defense against invading pathogens. Human microRNAs (Hsa-mir-198 and Hsa-mir-206) are predicted to bind to influenza, rubella, or poliovirus genes. Certain genes associated with schizophrenia, including those also concerned with neurophysiology, are intimately related to the life cycles of the pathogens implicated in the disease. Several genes may affect pathogen virulence, while the pathogens in turn may affect genes and processes relevant to the neurophysiology of schizophrenia. For such genes, the strength of association in genetic studies is likely to be conditioned by the presence of the pathogen, which varies in different populations at different times, a factor that may explain the heterogeneity that plagues such studies. This scenario also suggests that drugs or vaccines designed to eliminate the pathogens that so clearly interact with schizophrenia susceptibility genes could have a dramatic effect on the incidence of the disease.

Moderation of breastfeeding effects on the IQ by genetic variation in fatty acid metabolism

Children's intellectual development is influenced by both genetic inheritance and environmental experiences. Breastfeeding is one of the earliest such postnatal experiences. Breastfed children attain higher IQ scores than children not fed breast milk, presumably because of the fatty acids uniquely available in breast milk. Here we show that the association between breastfeeding and IQ is moderated by a genetic variant in FADS2, a gene involved in the genetic control of fatty acid pathways. We confirmed this gene-environment interaction in two birth cohorts, and we ruled out alternative explanations of the finding involving gene-exposure correlation, intrauterine growth, social class, and maternal cognitive ability, as well as maternal genotype effects on breastfeeding and breast milk. The finding shows that environmental exposures can be used to uncover novel candidate genes in complex phenotypes. It also shows that genes may work via the environment to shape the IQ, helping to close the nature versus nurture debate.