Computerized Executive Functions Training: The efficacy on reading performance of children with dyslexia

This study aimed to test the efficacy of a newly developed computer-based game naming computerized executive functions (CEF) task on the reading ability of children suffering from dyslexia. Forty dyslexic school students from the fourth and fifth grades were randomized to one of the experimental and control groups. Subjects of the experimental group received 12 sessions of Computerized Executive Functions Training (CEFT), while subjects of the control group played a neutral computer game throughout the 12 sessions. All participants responded to the Reading and Dyslexia Test (NEMA) as the pre- and post-test measure. Results revealed a significant improvement in the reading ability of subjects of the experimental group compared to the control group. Subjects of the experimental group indicated a greater improvement in some components of the NEMA scale including word reading, word chains reading, picture naming, text comprehension, word comprehension and letter fluency relative to the control group. CEFT had no significant effect in modifying the category fluency, phoneme elimination and rhyming components of the NEMA scale. Applying CEFT improves the reading performance of children with dyslexia by enforcing their cognitive abilities like working memory, inhibition control and cognitive flexibility which are necessary for normal reading ability.

resolved diabetic macular edema

BACKGROUND

Recent advancements in imaging technologies, particularly structural optical coherence tomography (OCT), have improved the understanding of diabetic macular edema (DME) pathophysiology and provided valuable biomarkers for disease progression and visual outcomes. This prospective study aimed to investigate the association between specific retinal biomarkers identified through OCT imaging and reading performance metrics in patients with previously treated persistent versus resolved DME and good visual acuity.

METHODS

Forty-nine eyes from 35 patients with a history of DME were enrolled. Reading performance was assessed using the Radner reading charts, which include standardized sentences with geometrically progressing print sizes. Structural alterations in the inner and outer retina, as well as the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE), were graded based on OCT images.

RESULTS

Reading performance, measured as maximum reading speed, was associated with specific retinal biomarkers. The disruption of the ellipsoid zone (EZ) in the parafoveal region and the presence of disorganization of the inner retinal layers (DRIL) in the parafovea were correlated with reduced reading speed. These associations were independent of the presence of intraretinal or subretinal fluid.

CONCLUSIONS

Understanding the relationship between retinal biomarkers and reading performance could contribute to a comprehensive evaluation of visual function and quality of life in patients with DME, leading to better management strategies and treatment outcomes.

Age-related changes in reading performance in normally sighted Arabic-speaking adults

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Reading performance is important for evaluating near vision and predicting and prescribing near-vision correction. There is a significant gap in the literature on Arabic reading performance and its associated effects.

BACKGROUND

Normative data from control participants serve as the baseline for future studies involving groups with specific characteristics. This study aimed to assess baseline measures of Arabic reading performance.

METHODS

In total, 428 normally sighted adults aged 19-83 years read the Balsam Alabdulkader - Leat chart to measure their reading performance. The participants were divided into five age groups. The outcome measures were the maximum reading speed in standard-length words per minute, critical print size, reading acuity, and reading accessibility index.

RESULTS

The average reading performance measures were as follows: 171 ± 27 standard-length words per minute for maximum reading speed, 0.01 logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution for critical print size, -0.17 logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution for reading acuity, and 1.02 for the accessibility index. There were significant differences among the age groups, indicating a dependency on age and showing a plateau for the young adult group and a decline with age. The accessibility index had an almost perfect correlation with maximum reading speed and a weak but significant relationship with reading acuity and critical print size.

CONCLUSION

Arabic exhibits an age-dependent trend in reading speed. However, owing to differences in orthography, visual demands, and reading strategies, the magnitude of the decrease and increase differs, potentially accounting for the variations between languages, especially when compared to English. This study serves as a foundation for future studies on Arabic reading performance. Future studies should examine the reading performance in patients with low vision, study the effects of common diseases on reading ability, evaluate the effectiveness of reading devices, and assess improvements in vision rehabilitation.

Structure-function relationship of reading performance in patients with early to moderate glaucoma

PURPOSE

To assess reading performance in patients with mild to moderate primary open-angle glaucoma (POAG), and to determine the relationship between reading ability and visual field (VF), microperimetry, and optical coherence tomography (OCT) parameters.

METHODS

Reading performance of 30 POAG patients examined by the Minnesota Reading Acuity Chart (MNREAD) was compared to that of 21 age-matched controls collected from Ankara University in Turkey. Humphrey Field Analyzer (HFA) 24-2 SITA Standard and 10-2 patterns, and microperimetry were used for VF measurements. All subjects underwent OCT analysis for retinal nerve fiber layer thickness (RNFLT), optic nerve head (ONH) measurements, and ganglion cell inner plexiform layer thickness (GCIPLT). The linear relationship between reading parameters and VF, microperimetry, and OCT parameters was investigated. Univariate and multiple logistic regression models were used to identify the risk factors for glaucoma.

RESULTS

In POAG patients, maximum reading speed (MRS) had a significant association with average rim area, mean cup-to-disc ratio (CDR), and cup volume (p < 0.05, for all). Decreased MRS was associated with thinner average GCIPLT and inferotemporal, superior, and inferior GCIPLT quadrants (p < 0.05, for all). Global index values for the HFA 24-2/10-2 tests, microperimetry, and ONH/RNFLT parameters had no correlation with reading performance. After accounting for the better and worse eyes, gender, education, age, and visual acuity of the glaucoma patients, MRS score was 23 units lower in the worse eye (p = 0.009), critical print size (CPS) was 0.21 units larger in the better eye (p = 0.03) and 0.25 units larger in the worse eye (p < 0.001), reading accesibility index (ACC) was 0.11 units lower in the better eye (p = 0.02) and 0.13 units lower in the worse eye (p = 0.002), and RA was 0.13 units higher in the worse eye (p = 0.003) of POAG patients.

CONCLUSION

POAG had significantly lower reading performance when compared to healthy subjects. Reading speed was associated with decreased macular GCIPLT indicating that reading performance may be affected in the earlier stages of the disease.

Oculomotor Rehabilitation Improves Reading Abilities in Dyslexic Children With Concurrent Eye Movement Abnormalities

The oculomotor abnormalities have been reported in some dyslexic children. The purpose of the study was to evaluate the effects of oculomotor rehabilitation on the reading performance of dyslexic children. Subjects were 50 dyslexic children. Those with oculomotor abnormalities (n = 30) were randomly assigned into 2 groups matched for age. The case group received oculomotor rehabilitation. The rehabilitation program consists of 3 different exercises. The reading and dyslexia tests were performed before and after the intervention. The correct scores of reading tests in the case group posttest increased significantly compared with the control group, and there is a significant difference between the two groups (P = .001). The positive effects of oculomotor rehabilitation on the reading performance of dyslexic children confirmed that the oculomotor program could be a practical tool for improving reading performance in dyslexic children.

Visual acuity and reading print size requirements in children with vision impairment

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

The support of students with a vision impairment throughout education could be enhanced by assessing the functional reading ability of the individual. This visual assessment could inform educators of individualised student needs and potentially improve the academic achievement for these students.

BACKGROUND

Support for children with a vision impairment within a classroom is typically based on clinical findings of distance visual acuity and visual fields. Therefore, determining optimal print size for reading is essential to ensure best academic outcomes. Secondary aims were to investigate the possible impact of underlying pathology on reading ability.

METHODS

Forty-seven participants were recruited from a state-wide support service for children with a vision impairment in South Australia. Three visual acuity groups were formed based on World Health Organisation definitions of mild, moderate, and severe vision impairment. Correlation between clinical measures of distance visual acuity using the Freiburg Visual Acuity Test, were compared with reading acuity and critical print size (smallest font before reading speed reduced) using Minnesota low vision reading chart (MNREAD).

RESULTS

No significant correlations were found for mild (0.20-0.49 logMAR) and severe (1.00-1.52 logMAR) vision impairment groups between distance visual acuity and reading acuity read (p = .64, CI [-.585, .395]/p = .82, CI [-.48, .58]) or critical print size (p = .78, CI [-.57, .45]/p = .43, CI [-.34, .68]. A significant correlation was found for the moderate vision impairment group: 0.50-0.99 logMAR for minimum reading acuity (p < .001, CI [.44, .91]) and critical print size (p = .03, CI [.05, .80]).

CONCLUSIONS

Standard clinical measures of distance visual acuity are an unpredictable estimate of reading ability in children with mild and severe vision impairment. Additional measures of functional near reading ability could provide a more meaningful indicator of reading ability and help provide optimum support to students through education.

Phonological Awareness Mediates the Relationship between DCDC2 and Reading Performance with the Influence of Home Environment

Proficient reading requires critical phonological processing skill that interact with both genetic and environmental factors. However, the precise nature of the relationships between phonological processing and genetic and environmental factors are poorly understood. We analyzed data from the Genes, Reading and Dyslexia (GRaD) Study on 1,419 children ages 8 to 14 years from African-American and Hispanic-American family backgrounds living in North America. The analyses showed that phonological awareness mediated the relationship between DCDC2-READ1 and reading outcomes when parental education and socioeconomic status was low. The association between READ1 and reading performance is complex, whereby mediation by phonological awareness was significantly moderated by both parental education and socioeconomic status. These results show the importance of home environment and phonological skills when determining associations between READ1 and reading outcomes. This will be an important consideration in the development of genetic screening for risk of reading disability.

Chinese undergraduates' English reading self-efficacy, intrinsic cognitive load, boredom, and performance: A moderated mediation model

Introduction

Research findings from various academic domains have demonstrated that students' self-efficacy (SE) influences their academic performance while limited studies have explored how foreign language reading SE influences reading performance. The purpose of this quantitative study was to explore the relationship between reading SE, intrinsic cognitive load (CL), boredom, and reading performance.

Methods

The participants were 272 English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) learners at a comprehensive university in China, who attended a compulsory English course for improving their English reading and writing proficiency. Data were analyzed through SPSS and structural equation modeling (SEM).

Results

The result of the study provided support for the hypothesized relationships. Students' English reading SE is positively related to their reading performance and negatively related to intrinsic CL. Their intrinsic CL during reading comprehension is negatively related to reading performance. Reading boredom is negatively related to reading SE and reading performance but positively related to CL. Furthermore, students' CL mediates the relationship between reading SE and performance while the negative achievement emotion of boredom moderates the relationship between reading SE and CL.

Discussion

The research highlights the importance of cognitive and emotional factors in influencing the relationship between foreign language reading self-efficacy and reading performance. Implications for EFL teachers and researchers are discussed.

Towards a standardisation of reading charts: Font effects on reading performance-Times New Roman with serifs versus the sans serif font Helvetica

PURPOSE

The purpose was to compare systematically the legibility of a font without serifs (Helvetica) and one with serifs (Times New Roman).

METHODS

Three paragraphs that were equal in the number of words, syllables, characters, difficulty and reading length were printed at equal size, with equal spacing between the lines and equal layout (paperback style), in either the sans serif typeface Helvetica Neue T1 55 Roman (Adobe) or the serif typeface Times New Roman PS Roman (Adobe). They were also printed in newspaper format in the serif font. The paragraphs were presented in random order (Latin square design) to 36 participants between 18 and 38 years of age (wearing their best-corrected visual acuity). Reading duration was measured with a stopwatch. Reading time, reading speed and the number of reading errors were compared.

RESULTS

For the paperback layout, no significant difference in reading time (p = 0.50) or reading speed (p = 0.56) was found between the two fonts. The correlation between the two fonts was high for both reading time and speed (r = 0.93). The mean number of reading errors was the same (0.31 ± 0.58 errors/text) for both fonts. There was a significant difference in reading time and speed between the paperback and the newspaper layout.

CONCLUSION

The legibility of Helvetica and Times New Roman is similar when investigated under equivalent conditions. Thus, these two font types can be used as interchangeable standard typefaces.

Comparison of near vision in glaucoma patients using standard and reversed-contrast charts

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Reversed-contrast testing is easy to perform via electronic devices and may improve reading performance and the quality of life of most glaucoma patients.

BACKGROUND

Electronic devices are becoming increasing popularity and most devices have easily adjustable contrast settings. This study investigated near vision acuity and preference between the standard visual acuity chart (black text on white background) and a reversed-contrast chart (white text on black background) in glaucoma patients with decreasing contrast sensitivity.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study evaluated 177 eyes of 177 patients from a single glaucoma clinic. The better eye of primary glaucoma patients (visual acuity of 6/20 or better) was evaluated. Patients with any other condition affecting visual acuity or reading performance were excluded. Near visual acuity was measured using a device with an anti-glare screen at 40 cm distance for both standard and reversed-contrast charts.

RESULTS

Glaucoma patients had a significantly better average near visual acuity using the reversed-contrast chart than using the standard chart (median best-corrected visual acuity, LogMAR = 0.12; interquartile range = 0.18 vs median best-corrected visual acuity, LogMAR = 0.2; interquartile range = 0.26; respectively; P < 0.01), with more prominent differences in the advanced glaucoma group (median best-corrected visual acuity of reversed contrast chart: median best-corrected visual acuity of standard chart = 0.12:0.2, 0.12:0.13, and 0.18:0.22 in the early, moderate, and severe groups, respectively, P < 0.01 in early and severe group and P = 0.02 in moderate group). One hundred and nine (109) out of 177 patients (61.58%) preferred the reversed contrast version.

CONCLUSION

Reversed contrast materials may improve the reading performance and quality of life of patients with glaucoma, especially those with severe disease.

Do visual word segmentation cues improve reading performance in Chinese reading？

It is controversial whether providing visual word segmentation cues can improve Chinese reading performance. This study investigated this topic by examining how visual word segmentation cues such as grey highlighting, red colour and interword spacing influence global sentence reading and local word recognition during reading Chinese text in three experiments. The results showed that interword spacing could facilitate local word recognition but could not increase reading speed. In contrast, grey highlighting and red colour could improve neither local word recognition nor global sentence reading performance. Instead, these cues increased the number of fixations and saccades, resulting in slower reading speed. These results suggest that even red colour is not a practically visual cue for Chinese word segmentation and the corresponding mechanisms were discussed. Practitioner Summary: We studied how visual cues such as grey highlighting, red colour and interword spacing influenced Chinese reading performance. Our data showed that even the red colour was not an efficient cue for Chinese word segmentation. The corresponding mechanisms and future direction were discussed regarding how to improve Chinese reading performance.

Visual requirement for Chinese reading with normal vision

OBJECTIVES

Reading performance has been considered as an effective functional endpoint for low vision. Contrary to many extensive studies for reading performance in English, there are few systematic studies for Chinese reading.

METHODS

In the present study, the reading performance of 30 normally sighted Chinese college students was systematically investigated. All participants passed the equivalent test of Cambridge ESOL PET in China. The reading speeds for Chinese and English text at a variety of text sizes were measured with rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP). The threshold acuities for Chinese characters and English letters were measured. Maximum reading speed, critical font size, and critical acuity reserve were derived according to the individual's reading speed curve.

RESULTS

The maximum reading speed for Chinese characters was 259.5 ± 38.2 characters/min, which was significantly faster than that for English letters (135.7 ± 18.5 words/min, p = 2.8 × 10^-18 ). The critical font size for Chinese characters was larger than that for English letters (24.2 ± 2.8 arcmin vs. 20.7 ± 1.0 arcmin, p = 1.6 × 10^-7 ). Interestingly, the critical acuity reserve was similar for these two languages (3.4 ± 0.4 for Chinese and 3.4 ± 0.2 for English, p = 0.4).

CONCLUSION

The present study provides the first step for establishing visual functional endpoints for Chinese reading. Our findings pose rigorous constrains on present theories in language information processing and brain plasticity.

Age-related changes in baseline reading acuity and speed as measured using RADNER Reading Charts in healthy eyes with best corrected ETDRS distance acuity

PURPOSE

To assess age-related differences in baseline measures of reading performance obtained from the RADNER Reading Charts in healthy eyes with best corrected (ETDRS) distance acuity.

METHODS

Cross-sectional study of participants (n=200) aged 25-74 years (n=20 per 5 years age group). Best corrected distance visual acuity was measured monocularly with ETDRS 2000 Charts. Reading performance was evaluated binocularly with the RADNER Reading Charts. Reading acuity (RA), reading acuity score (RA score), mean reading speed (MEAN-RS), maximum reading speed, reading speed with a long paragraph, critical print size (CPS) and the logMAR/logRAD ratio were analysed.

RESULTS

RA, RA score, CPS-1 (last logRAD with normal reading speed) and ETDRS acuity did not change significantly between age 25 and 54 years. Overall, the mean RA was -0.091±0.07 logRAD, and the RA score was -0.069±0.07 logRAD. The mean difference between the RA and best ETDRS acuity was 0.0603±0.055 logMAR (r=0.62; p<0.05). The logMAR/logRAD ratio was 87.75%±11.23%. The MEAN-RS ranged from 189±21.9 words per minute (wpm) for the group aged 70-74 years to 236±22.5 wpm for the group aged 40-44 years and correlated well with the long paragraph results (r=0.87).

CONCLUSION

Best corrected RA, reading speed and ETDRS distance acuity were constant until the age of 54 years. An age-related break point was found between the groups aged 50-54 years and 55-59 years; for reading speed, the break point can be assumed to be within the age range of 50-54 years.

Visual performance, reading ability and patient satisfaction after implantation of a diffractive trifocal intraocular lens

Purpose

To evaluate visual outcome, reading performance, contrast sensitivity, and patient satisfaction after cataract surgery with implantation of a diffractive trifocal intraocular lens (IOL).

Patients and methods

A total of 42 eyes (21 patients) underwent cataract surgery with implantation of the trifocal IOL AT LISA tri 839MP. Visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, and patient satisfaction were evaluated 3 months postoperatively. Reading performance was evaluated at 3 months postoperatively with the MNREAD charts.

Results

All eyes achieved a 3-month postoperative monocular uncorrected distance visual acuity of 0.10 logMAR or better (Snellen 20/25). Likewise, 97.62% and 85.71% of eyes achieved a postoperative monocular uncorrected intermediate, and near visual acuity of 0.20 logMAR (Snellen 20/30) or better. All patients achieved postoperative binocular uncorrected distance visual acuity, uncorrected intermediate, and uncorrected near visual acuity of 0.20 logMAR (Snellen 20/30) or better. Mean photopic reading acuity and speed were 0.24±0.07 logMAR and 177.61±20.67 words per minute, respectively. Postoperative contrast sensitivity values were within the ranges of normality for all spatial frequencies evaluated. Postoperative spectacle independence and patient satisfaction was very high, with most of the patients reporting a good or very good visual quality at far, intermediate, and near distances. All patients would choose the same lens again.

Conclusion

The evaluated trifocal IOL provides an effective restoration of the visual function after cataract surgery, with high levels of distance, intermediate, and near visual acuity, strong reading performance, and patient satisfaction.

Infantile nystagmus: an optometrist's perspective

Infantile nystagmus (IN), previously known as congenital nystagmus, is an involuntary to-and-fro movement of the eyes that persists throughout life. IN is one of three types of early-onset nystagmus that begin in infancy, alongside fusion maldevelopment nystagmus syndrome and spasmus nutans syndrome. Optometrists may also encounter patients with acquired nystagmus. The features of IN overlap largely with those of fusion maldevelopment nystagmus syndrome, spasmus nutans syndrome, and acquired nystagmus, yet the management for each subtype is different. Therefore, the optometrist's role is to accurately discern IN from other forms of nystagmus and to manage accordingly. As IN is a lifelong condition, its presence not only affects the visual function of the individual but also their quality of life, both socially and psychologically. In this report, we focus on the approaches that involve optometrists in the investigation and management of patients with IN. Management includes the prescription of optical treatments, low-vision rehabilitation, and other interventions such as encouraging the use of the null zone and referral to support groups. Other treatments available via ophthalmologists are also briefly discussed in the article.

Reading Performance Improvements in Patients with Central Vision Loss without Age-Related Macular Degeneration after Undergoing Personalized Rehabilitation Training

PURPOSE

To evaluate the efficacy of a reading rehabilitation program (RRP) in patients with central visual loss (CVL) and assess the impact of the RRP on the quality of life (QoL).

METHODS

The RRP included four in-office and 39 in-home training sessions over 6 weeks. Reading speed, duration, and font size were evaluated during each in-office session. The subjective perception of the QoL was assessed before and after the RRP using the short version of a questionnaire (World Health Organization Quality of Life). A control group who received advice about ocular conditions and low-vision aids also was included.

RESULTS

Seventeen patients with Stargardt's disease (STGD), 11 with adult-onset foveomacular vitelliform dystrophy (AFVD), and eight with myopic macular degeneration (MMD) were included. The control group included five patients each with STGD, AFVD, and MMD. The respective mean corrected distance visual acuities (VAs) in patients with STGD, AFVD, MMD, and the control group were 0.57 ± 0.38, 0.51 ± 0.38, 0.49 ± 0.24, and 0.55 ± 0.25 logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution; the mean corrected near VAs were 0.89 ± 0.20, 1.08 ± 0.17, 0.99 ± 0.34, and 1.18 ± 0.37 (M notation) using low-vision aids. The reading speed, duration, and font size improved in all groups. The RRP groups obtained (p ≤ 0.01) greater improvements than the control group in each reading performance variable assessed. Patients with STGD obtained greater improvements in the subjective evaluation; the control group did not obtain noteworthy improvement in any domain.

CONCLUSIONS

The RRP improved reading performance in patients with CVL and positively impacted the subjective perception of the QoL.

The Evaluation of Reading Performance with Minnesota Low Vision Reading Charts in Patients with Age-related Macular Degeneration

PURPOSE:

To evaluate the reading performance using the Minnesota low vision reading (MNREAD) charts, of patients with age-related macular degeneration (AMD) who use low vision aid (LVA) devices.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

This prospective study enrolled 27 patients with AMD. Distance visual acuity (VA) was evaluated with a distance chart designed for patients with low vision. Near vision and reading performance were evaluated with the Turkish version of the MNREAD charts. Unaided vision and vision with LVA devices and high spherical add near glasses was measured. P <0.05 was considered statistically significant.

RESULTS:

The mean unaided near VA was 1.05 ± 0.27 log of the minimum angle of resolution (LogMAR). The mean VA with the LVA devices was 0.71 ± 0.41 LogMAR. Reading acuity ranged between 1.15 and 0.21 LogMAR, critical print size was between − 1.2 and 0.2 LogMAR. Maximum reading speeds were between 0 and 103 words/min. The cases are divided into groups in terms of reading speed according to age, gender, diagnosis, and education. Reading speed was negatively correlated to increasing age.

CONCLUSION:

MNREAD reading charts can be used to evaluate reading performance in patients with AMD with low vision. The outcomes of the present study indicate that optical correction is adequate for near VA requirements in this patient population. However, optical correction was inadequate for improving reading performance. Appropriate rehabilitation programs can be used to increase reading speed.

Visual and personal characteristics are associated with reading performance in normally sighted adults

BACKGROUND

Visual acuity (VA) only slightly explains variability in reading performance, whereas other visual and non-visual parameters have been reported to influence reading performance; however, in ophthalmologic and optometric clinical practice and research, where standardised reading tests are used, many of these parameters are often neglected. The purpose of this study was to give insight into how various visual and non-visual parameters are associated with reading performance in normally sighted subjects. In addition, reading speed over time was investigated to observe the influence of prolonged reading on standardised test performance.

METHODS

Reading speed and the number of mistakes were assessed with long text paragraphs obtained from the International Reading Speed Texts (IReST) and short sentences obtained from the Radner Reading Charts in 71 persons (mean age: 55 years, range: 18 to 86 years) with a binocular distance VA of logMAR 0.20 or better. For each of the variables (distance and near VA, contrast sensitivity, stray light, age, sex, educational level, habitual reading hours and reading affinity), the association with reading performance was investigated with multivariate linear regression models. Reading performance over time was assessed with linear mixed models.

RESULTS

Contrast sensitivity was independently associated with reading speed (IReST paragraphs p = 0.002, Radner sentences p = 0.021). An interaction between age and education was found for both reading tests (p = 0.001), at an older age, reading speed was less influenced by educational level. Reading speed remained stable over time.

CONCLUSION

The present study shows that contrast sensitivity was independently associated with reading speed and an interaction effect was found between age and education. As these tests are easy to administer, it is recommended to assess them in clinical practice and scientific research. When using standardised tests in healthy subjects, prolonged reading proved not to be an issue for reading durations up to about 23 minutes.

The Relationship between Ethnic Classroom Composition and Turkish-Origin and German Students' Reading Performance and Sense of Belonging

Past research on ethnic composition effects on migrant and ethnic majority students' performance has reported inconclusive results: Some studies have found no relationship between the proportion of migrant students in school and students' performance, some revealed positive effects, whereas others showed negative effects of the proportion of migrant students. Most of the studies did not consider whether an increase in the proportion of migrant students in the classroom has different effects on migrant and ethnic majority students' performance. For this reason, the present study (N = 9215) extends previous research by investigating the cross-level interaction effect of the proportion of Turkish-origin students in classrooms on Turkish-origin and German students' reading performance with data based on the German National Assessment Study 2008/2009 in the school subject German. In addition, we examined the cross-level interaction effect of Turkish-origin students' proportion on sense of belonging to school for Turkish-origin and German students, as sense of belonging has been shown to be an important predictor of well-being and integration. No cross-level interaction effect on performance emerged. Only a small negative main effect of the Turkish-origin students' proportion on all students' performance was found. As predicted, we showed a cross-level interaction on sense of belonging. Only Turkish-origin students' sense of belonging was positively related to the proportion of Turkish-origin students: The more Turkish-origin students there were in a classroom, the higher Turkish-origin students' sense of belonging. German students' sense of belonging was not related to the ethnic classroom composition. Implications of the results in the educational context are discussed.

Simulated hyperopic anisometropia and reading, visual information processing, and reading-related eye movement performance in children

PURPOSE

This study investigated the impact of simulated hyperopic anisometropia and sustained near work on performance of academic-related measures in children.

METHODS

Participants included 16 children (mean age: 11.1 ± 0.8 years) with minimal refractive error. Academic-related outcome measures included a reading test (Neale Analysis of Reading Ability), visual information-processing tests (Coding and Symbol Search subtests from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children), and a reading-related eye movement test (Developmental Eye Movement test). Performance was assessed with and without 0.75 diopters of simulated monocular hyperopic defocus (administered in a randomized order), before and after 20 minutes of sustained near work. Unilateral hyperopic defocus was systematically assigned to either the dominant or nondominant sighting eye to evaluate the impact of ocular dominance on any performance decrements.

RESULTS

Simulated hyperopic anisometropia and sustained near work both independently reduced performance on all of the outcome measures (P < 0.001). A significant interaction was also observed between simulated anisometropia and near work (P < 0.05), with the greatest decrement in performance observed during simulated anisometropia in combination with sustained near work. Laterality of the refractive error simulation (ocular dominance) did not significantly influence the outcome measures (P > 0.05). A reduction of up to 12% in performance was observed across the range of academic-related measures following sustained near work undertaken during the anisometropic simulation.

CONCLUSIONS

Simulated hyperopic anisometropia significantly impaired academic-related performance, particularly in combination with sustained near work. The impact of uncorrected habitual anisometropia on academic-related performance in children requires further investigation.

Prenatal exposure to nicotine and impaired reading performance

OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether prenatal exposure to nicotine has an impact on several reading skill outcomes in school age children.

STUDY DESIGN

Using a longitudinal sample of 5119 school age children in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, this study investigated specific reading skill outcomes in the area of speed, fluency, accuracy, spelling, and comprehension in relation to prenatal nicotine exposure, after adjusting for potential mediators and confounders. Prenatal nicotine exposure was divided into 3 categories: high (>17 mg per day), low (≤17 mg per day), and no exposure.

RESULTS

We found that prenatal nicotine exposure was associated with increased risk of underperformance in specific reading skill outcomes after adjusting for potential mediators and confounders (P = .006). The effect of poor performance in decoding single words was most pronounced among children with prenatal exposure to high levels of nicotine in conjunction with a phonological deficit. Overall, the results showed that maternal smoking has moderate to large associations with delayed or decreased reading skills of children in the Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children.

CONCLUSIONS

High prenatal nicotine exposure has a negative association with reading performance in school age children. In addition, modeling showed that environmental factors significantly moderated the interaction between prenatal nicotine exposure and reading skill outcomes.

Performance of cochlear implant recipients with GJB2-related deafness

Congenital profound hearing loss affects 0.05-0.1% of children and has many causes, some of which are associated with cognitive delay. For prelingually-deafened cochlear implant recipients, the etiology of deafness is usually unknown. Mutations in GJB2 have been established as the most common cause of heritable deafness in the United States. In this report, we identify cochlear implant recipients with GJB2-related deafness and examine the performance of these individuals. Cochlear implant recipients received a battery of perceptive, cognitive, and reading tests. Neither subjects nor examiners knew the etiology of deafness in these individuals. The implant recipients were then examined for mutations in GJB2 using an allele-specific polymerase chain reaction assay, single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis, and direct sequencing. GJB2 mutations were the leading cause of congenital deafness among the cochlear implant recipients screened. Cochlear implant recipients with GJB2-related deafness read within one standard deviation of hearing controls better than other congenitally deaf cochlear implant recipients and non-cochlear implant recipients. Individuals with congenital deafness should be offered GJB2 screening. Positive results establish an etiologic diagnosis and provide prognostic, genetic, and therapeutic information. Effective rehabilitation for profoundly deaf individuals with GJB2-related deafness is possible through cochlear implantation.