BovineTalk: machine learning for vocalization analysis of dairy cattle under the negative affective state of isolation

There is a critical need to develop and validate non-invasive animal-based indicators of affective states in livestock species, in order to integrate them into on-farm assessment protocols, potentially via the use of precision livestock farming (PLF) tools. One such promising approach is the use of vocal indicators. The acoustic structure of vocalizations and their functions were extensively studied in important livestock species, such as pigs, horses, poultry, and goats, yet cattle remain understudied in this context to date. Cows were shown to produce two types of vocalizations: low-frequency calls (LF), produced with the mouth closed, or partially closed, for close distance contacts, and open mouth emitted high-frequency calls (HF), produced for long-distance communication, with the latter considered to be largely associated with negative affective states. Moreover, cattle vocalizations were shown to contain information on individuality across a wide range of contexts, both negative and positive. Nowadays, dairy cows are facing a series of negative challenges and stressors in a typical production cycle, making vocalizations during negative affective states of special interest for research. One contribution of this study is providing the largest to date pre-processed (clean from noises) dataset of lactating adult multiparous dairy cows during negative affective states induced by visual isolation challenges. Here, we present two computational frameworks-deep learning based and explainable machine learning based, to classify high and low-frequency cattle calls and individual cow voice recognition. Our models in these two frameworks reached 87.2 and 89.4% accuracy for LF and HF classification, with 68.9 and 72.5% accuracy rates for the cow individual identification, respectively.

Cognitive Group Testing Promotes Affiliative Behaviors in Dolphins

Ex-situ research in aquariums and zoological settings not only support scientific advancement, they also provide opportunities for education, facilitating both mental and physical stimulation, consequently improving welfare. This study aimed to investigate the impact of cognitive testing on the well-being of a group of male Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins. The occurrence of affiliative, aggressive and potentially stereotypical behaviors was assessed based on seven monitored behavior types and compared between "Session days" and "Non-session days." The consistency of the impact was assessed over a three-year period. The analyses revealed that "Play with enrichment," "Affiliative tactile," "Social play" and "Synchronous swim" were significantly higher, while "Aggression" was significantly lower on Session days than on Non-session days. Individual analysis showed significant increase in the positive welfare indicators in all dolphins during Session days. The social network analysis of aggressive interactions between group members also supported an overall decrease of aggression during Session days. These results indicate that dolphin groups that voluntarily participate in cognitive tests under human care benefit from the testing and show an improvement in animal welfare while contributing to scientific advancement.

Current Knowledge on the Transportation by Road of Cattle, including Unweaned Calves

Transport conditions have the potential to alter the physiological responses of animals to the psychological or physical stress of transport. Transportation may introduce multiple physical and psychological stressors to unweaned calves and adult cattle, including noise, overcrowding, food and water deprivation, extreme temperatures, commingling with unfamiliar animals, handling by unfamiliar humans, and being placed in a novel environment upon arrival. Apart from these factors, the type of road and even driving skill may affect the welfare of animals. One of the concerns regarding cattle transport is that the handling and marketing of animals prior to a journey may lengthen the period of feed withdrawal. Furthermore, feed withdrawal can impact animal welfare through hunger and metabolic stress. Transportation is also associated with a decrease in animal performance as well as an increase in the incidence of bovine respiratory disease. It is well established that the transportation of cattle is a stressor that causes a quantifiable response; however, excessive stress during transport resulting in physiological or pathological changes can be reduced with best management practices. The objective of this review was to analyse the available scientific literature pertaining to the transport by road of cattle, including unweaned calves.

Understanding how high stocking densities and concurrent limited oxygen availability drive social cohesion and adaptive features in regulatory growth, antioxidant defense and lipid metabolism in farmed gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata)

The study combined the use of biometric, behavioral, physiological and external tissue damage scoring systems to better understand how high stocking densities drive schooling behavior and other adaptive features during the finishing growing phase of farmed gilthead sea bream in the Western Mediterranean. Fish were grown at three different final stocking densities (LD, 8.5 kg/m3; MD, 17 kg/m3; HD, 25 kg/m3). Water oxygen concentration varied between 5 and 6 ppm in LD fish to 3-4 ppm in HD fish with the summer rise of water temperature from 19°C to 26°C (May-July). HD fish showed a reduction of feed intake and growth rates, but they also showed a reinforced social cohesion with a well-defined endogenous swimming activity rhythm with feeding time as a main synchronization factor. The monitored decrease of the breathing/swimming activity ratio by means of the AEFishBIT data-logger also indicated a decreased energy partitioning for growth in the HD environment with a limited oxygen availability. Plasma glucose and cortisol levels increased with the rise of stocking density, and the close association of glycaemia with the expression level of antioxidant enzymes (mn-sod, gpx4, prdx5) in liver and molecular chaperones (grp170, grp75) in skeletal muscle highlighted the involvement of glucose in redox processes via rerouting in the pentose-phosphate-pathway. Other adaptive features included the depletion of oxidative metabolism that favored lipid storage rather than fatty acid oxidation to decrease the oxygen demand as last electron acceptor in the mitochondrial respiratory chain. This was coincident with the metabolic readjustment of the Gh/Igf endocrine-growth cascade that promoted the regulation of muscle growth at the local level rather than a systemic action via the liver Gh/Igf axis. Moreover, correlation analyses within HD fish displayed negative correlations of hepatic transcripts of igf1 and igf2 with the data-logger measurements of activity and respiration, whereas the opposite was found for muscle igf2, ghr1 and ghr2. This was indicative of a growth-regulatory transition that supported a proactive instead of a reactive behavior in HD fish, which was considered adaptive to preserve an active and synchronized feeding behavior with a minimized risk of oxidative stress and epidermal skin damage.

Mental Experiences in Wild Animals: Scientifically Validating Measurable Welfare Indicators in Free-Roaming Horses

The mental experiences of animals are what characterises their welfare status. The Five Domains Model for assessing welfare aligns with the understanding that physical and mental states are linked. Following measurement of indicators within each of the four physical/functional Domains (1. Nutrition; 2. Physical environment; 3. Health; and 4. Behavioural interactions), the anticipated negative or positive affective consequences (mental experiences) are cautiously inferred and assigned to Domain 5. Those inferences derive credibility from validated knowledge of the underlying systems of physiology, neurophysiology, neuroethology and affective neuroscience. Any indicators used for assessing welfare need to be scientifically validated. This requires, firstly, evidence of the links between a measurable/observable indicator and the physical/functional impact (in Domains 1 to 4), and secondly, a demonstrable relationship between the physical/functional impact and the mental experience it is inferred the indicators reflect (in Domain five). This review refers to indicators of physical/functional states in Domains 1 to 4, which have been shown to be measurable in free-roaming wild horses, and then evaluates the scientific evidence linking them to inferred mental experiences in Domain 5. This is the first time that the scientific evidence validating a comprehensive range of welfare indicators has been synthesised in this way. Inserting these indicators into the Five Domains Model enables transparently justifiable assessment and grading of welfare status in free-roaming horses.

The use of gaze to study cognition: limitations, solutions, and applications to animal welfare

The study of gaze responses, typically using looking time paradigms, has become a popular approach to improving our understanding of cognitive processes in non-verbal individuals. Our interpretation of data derived from these paradigms, however, is constrained by how we conceptually and methodologically approach these problems. In this perspective paper, we outline the application of gaze studies in comparative cognitive and behavioral research and highlight current limitations in the interpretation of commonly used paradigms. Further, we propose potential solutions, including improvements to current experimental approaches, as well as broad-scale benefits of technology and collaboration. Finally, we outline the potential benefits of studying gaze responses from an animal welfare perspective. We advocate the implementation of these proposals across the field of animal behavior and cognition to aid experimental validity, and further advance our knowledge on a variety of cognitive processes and welfare outcomes.

Social behaviors as welfare indicators in teleost fish

Animal welfare is a key issue not only for aquaculture industry and food production, but also for daily husbandry practices in research topics related to physiology in wild and farmed animals. In this context, teleost fish constitute interesting models to assess alternative welfare indicators because of their wide diversity in reproductive and social structures. Any framework for assessing teleost fish welfare needs to account for the physiological mechanisms involved in each species as a first step. A comprehensive approach should also take into account how these physiological and behavioral parameters can be altered by environmental enrichment considering the specific requirements in each case and identifying intrinsic biological characteristics of individual species. This review will show how cortisol and sex steroids regulate social behavior in teleost fish, and how different aspects of social behavior can be employed as welfare indicators according to specific characteristics in each case. This article will consider evidence in teleost fish, including cichlids, characids and cyprinids with different reproductive strategies and social structures (e.g., territorial social hierarchies or shoaling behavior). Neotropical species will be particularly emphasized. The main laboratory-based animal welfare indicators are cortisol, a classical stress hormone, together with sex steroids. Considering that the endocrine landscape is intrinsically related to social behavior, reproductive and agonistic behavioral traits such as aggression, anxiety and courtship are key elements to assess welfare under housing and culture conditions. This review highlights the importance of assessing physiological mechanisms and identifying behavioral characteristics in teleost fish, especially in Neotropical species, as a baseline to understand which environmental enrichment can improve animal welfare in each individual species.

Prevalence and Antimicrobial Resistance of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli from Laying Hens Housed in Different Rearing Systems

Campylobacter (C.) jejuni and C. coli are responsible for food poisoning in humans. Laying hens may host the bacteria usually without developing symptoms. The aims of this paper were to evaluate the incidence of C. jejuni and C. coli infection in laying hen flocks housed in different rearing systems, the plasma levels of two welfare indicators (corticosterone and interleukin 6, IL-6) and the antimicrobial resistance of the detected Campylobacter strains. Two different flocks (1 and 2) from cage (A), barn (B) and aviary (C) farms were investigated. The highest (p < 0.05) levels of IL-6 were detected in laying hens housed in aviaries. A similar trend emerged in corticosterone level, although differences were found between C1 and C2. C. jejuni and C. coli were identified in 43.5% and 38.9% of birds, respectively. In total, 14 out of 177 (7.9%) hens simultaneously hosted C. jejuni and C. coli.C. jejuni was prevalently detected in hens housed in barns (B1: 53.3%; B2: 46.7%) and aviaries (C1: 34.6%; C2: 86.7%). Conversely, laying hens housed in cages were significantly exposed to infection of C. coli (A1: 41.9%; A2: 80%) while, regarding barns and aviaries, a significant prevalence emerged only in flocks B2 (40%) and C1 (54.8%). Simultaneous infection was statistically significant in barn B1 (36.7%). Antibiotic resistance was mainly detected among C. coli strains, and it was most frequent for fluoroquinolones and tetracycline. Multidrug resistance was also found in C. jejuni (19.7%) and C. coli (17.5%) strains. Based on the results of this study, we recommend increasing biosecurity and hygienic measures to manage hen flocks.

Applying a New Proposed Welfare Assessment Protocol to Suckler Herds from Three Different Autochthonous Breeds

The welfare of farm animals has become an increasingly important issue for society, especially for consumers of animal products. Currently, there is no standardized and validated protocol in Portugal for assessing the welfare of suckler cow herds in extensive systems. This work aims to study and apply previously used indicators, based on behavior, mental status, health, body condition, and interactions with the environment. Criteria and measures were adapted from protocols for cattle in other production systems (Welfare Quality^®, WQ) or protocols set for pasture-based cattle in New Zealand. To the WQ measures, such as body condition, absence of injuries and diseases, positive emotional state and management indicators, we added behavior when in the chute, distance to water points, positioning of ear tags, and thermal comfort. The feasibility of the protocol was assessed in herds with cows belonging to three different Portuguese autochthonous beef breeds. The welfare of the herds was considered good or excellent, with only the behavior at the chute being negatively scored in the Brava breed. The application and validation of indicators to correctly assess animal welfare all along the production chain is crucial to achieve certification, and to the identification and correction of causes of poor welfare.

Animal-Based Indicators for On-Farm Welfare Assessment in Goats

Simple Summary

Welfare assessments for animals require the use of specific indicators. These indicators should be practical and easy to use in an on-farm environment while correctly reflecting on the animals’ welfare. Our aim was to review literature on such indicators for goats, as small ruminants have not received as much attention as other farm animals in the field of welfare assessment. Some indicators such as lameness are already well investigated and suitable for use in goat welfare assessments. Others, for example, lying behaviour, need more research, as the limited amount of knowledge restrains the information on validity or usefulness. As in other animals, the welfare of goats has become an increasingly important issue in public discourse. Our overview on indicators aids in developing tools to measure and improve the welfare of goats.

Abstract

This review describes the current state of knowledge relating to scientific literature on welfare indicators for goats. Our aim was to provide an overview of animal-based indicators for on-farm welfare assessments. We performed a literature search and extracted 96 relevant articles by title, abstract, and full-text screening. Out of these articles, similar indicators were aggregated to result in a total of 32 welfare indicators, some of which were covered in multiple articles, others in only a single one. We discuss a set of three established assessment protocols containing these indicators, as well as all individual indicators which were covered in more than one article. As single indicators, we identified lameness, body condition score (BCS), qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA), and human–animal relationship (HAR) tests with substantial evidence for sufficient validity to assess welfare in goats. A multitude of indicators (e.g., hair coat condition) was studied less intensively but was successfully used for welfare assessments. For some indicators (e.g., oblivion, lying behaviour), we highlight the need for future research to further validate them or to optimise their use in on-farm welfare assessments. Moreover, further investigations need to include kids, bucks, and meat and fibre goats, as well as extensively kept goats as the literature predominantly focuses on dairy goats in intensive production systems.

Influences on the assessment of resource- and animal-based welfare indicators in unweaned dairy calves for usage by farmers

Consumers, industrial stakeholders, and the legislature demand a stronger focus on animal welfare of all livestock at the farm level by using suitable indicators in self-assessments. In order to deduce farms' animal welfare status reliably, factors that influence indicators' results need to be identified. Hence, this study aimed to apply possible animal welfare indicators for unweaned dairy calves on conventional dairy farms with early cow-calf separation and evaluate influencing factors such as age and sex of calves or climatic conditions on the applied indicators' results. An animal welfare assessment using 7 resource-based and 14 animal-based indicators was conducted at 42 typical Western German dairy farms (844 calves) in 2018 and 2019 by two observers. The effect of influencing factors was calculated by binary and ordinal logistic regressions and expressed as odds ratios. Although every unweaned calf was assessed during the farm visits, most farms had relatively few unweaned calves (average number of calves ± standard deviation = 20.1 ± 6.7 calves), with six farms having not more than 10 calves. The small sample sizes question the usage of those indicators to compare between farms and to set thresholds at the farm level. Only one assessed indicator (cleanliness core body) was not statistically affected by the evaluated influencing factors. Calf age was identified as the most decisive factor, as it affected 16 of 21 evaluated indicators, and calf age distribution on-farm varied greatly. Climatic conditions (ambient temperature and rainfall) influenced resource-based indicators such as access to concentrate and water or the cleanliness of feeding implements and bedding as well as animal-based cleanliness indicators and the occurrence of health-related impairments such as coughing and diarrhea. The authors found differences between calves on farms assessed by the different observers not only in resource-based hygiene indicators but also in animal-based indicators such as hyperthermia or hypothermia, highlighting the need for further evaluation of quality criteria in dairy calf welfare assessments. Nevertheless, animal welfare assessments by farmers themselves could be useful tools to sensitize farmers to animal welfare and thereby improve calves' welfare.

Prevalence of Potential Indicators of Welfare Status in Young Calves at Meat Processing Premises in New Zealand

In New Zealand, over two million dairy calves between four and seven days of age are sent to meat processing premises every year. There is a need to develop protocols for holistically assessing the welfare of calves sent to slaughter in the first week of life. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of potential animal-based indicators of the welfare state in bobby calves in lairage. The study observed calves in lairage between June and October 2016. Data collection involved assessing groups of calves in pens followed by non-invasive measurements on up to five calves within each pen. We made 23 visits to 12 meat processing premises with group-level observations made on 5910 calves in 102 pens, followed by a non-invasive examination of 504 calves. During the group level observations, none of the calves had their heads tilted or were panting, and coughing and play behaviour were observed in only 1% of pens. In contrast, at least one calf had faecal soiling in all the observed pens, with the percentage of calves affected in each pen ranging from 1% to 48%. In the individual observations, more than 60% of calves had signs of some degree of dehydration, and nearly 40% had some faecal soiling present. In addition, 24% of calves had a respiratory rate over 36 breaths per minute, considered higher than normal. The change in prevalence of some indicators-as time spent in lairage increased or as the calving season progressed-is worth further exploration. Identification of prevalent animal-based indicators facilitates better understanding of the welfare status of young calves in lairage, and these should be incorporated into more holistic calf welfare assessment schemes.

Health Monitoring of Fattening Pigs - Use of Production Data, Farm Characteristics and On-Farm Examination

Background

The use of processed secondary data for health monitoring of fattening pigs has been established in various areas, such as the use of antibiotics or in the context of meat inspection. Standardized scores were calculated based on several sources of production data and can be used to describe animal health in a large collective of pig units. In the present study, the extent to which these scores are related to different farm characteristics and management decisions were investigated. In addition, slaughter scores were compared with the results of a veterinary examination on the farms.

Results

The comparison of the results of the uni- and multifactorial analyses revealed that almost all of the examined factors play a role in at least one of the scores when considered individually. However, when various significant influencing factors were taken into account at any one time, most of the variables lost their statistical significance due to confounding effects. In particular, production data such as production costs or daily feed intake remained in the final models of the scores on mortality, average daily gain and external lesions. Regarding the second part of the investigation, a basic technical correlation between the slaughter scores and the on-farm indicators could be established via principal component analysis. The modelling of the slaughter scores by the on-farm indicators showed that the score on external lesions could be represented by equivalent variables recorded on the farm (e.g., lesions caused by tail or ear biting).

Conclusions

It has been demonstrated that the examined health scores are influenced by various farm and management characteristics. However, when several factors are taken into account, confounding occurs in some cases, which must be considered by consultants. Additionally, it was shown that on-farm examination content is related to the scores based on equivalent findings from slaughter pigs.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40813-021-00225-y.

A Results-Oriented Approach for the Animal Welfare Measure of the European Union's Rural Development Programme

Farm animal welfare is a major concern to the European Union's citizens, addressed in the Rural Development Programmes by a specific animal welfare support measure. Previous evaluation results reveal that the implemented action-oriented measures fail when it comes to improving animal health, an important dimension of animal welfare. Results-oriented measures could compensate for this deficiency, but little is known about their design. In order to improve the effectiveness of current animal welfare measures for dairy cows, we analysed the elements of such a measure in an interdisciplinary, application-oriented research project involving agricultural economists and livestock scientists. We have used a mixed methods approach including a written Delphi survey, group-discussions and on-farm data-collection to select suitable indicators, develop an approach for the identification of threshold values and to design a support measure. Results suggest that, in animal welfare support measures, action- as well as results-oriented elements are necessary to address all dimensions of animal welfare.

Factors Affecting the Welfare of Unweaned Dairy Calves Destined for Early Slaughter and Abattoir Animal-Based Indicators Reflecting Their Welfare On-Farm

In many dairy industries, but particularly those that are pasture-based and have seasonal calving, "surplus calves," which are mostly male, are killed at a young age because they are of low value and it is not economically viable to raise them. Such calves are either killed on farm soon after birth or sent for slaughter at an abattoir. In countries where calves are sent for slaughter the age ranges from 3-4 days (New Zealand and Australia; "bobby calves") to 3-4 weeks (e.g., Ireland); they are not weaned. All calves are at the greatest risk of death in the 1st month of life but when combined with their low value, this makes surplus calves destined for early slaughter (i.e., <1 month of age) particularly vulnerable to poor welfare while on-farm. The welfare of these calves may also be compromised during transport and transit through markets and at the abattoir. There is growing recognition that feedback to farmers of results from animal-based indicators (ABI) of welfare (including health) collected prior to and after slaughter can protect animal welfare. Hence, the risk factors for poor on-farm, in-transit and at-abattoir calf welfare combined with an ante and post mortem (AM/PM) welfare assessment scheme specific to calves <1 month of age are outlined. This scheme would also provide an evidence base with which to identify farms on which such animals are more at risk of poor welfare. The following ABIs, at individual or batch level, are proposed: AM indicators include assessment of age (umbilical maturity), nutritional status (body condition, dehydration), behavioral status (general demeanor, posture, able to and stability while standing and moving, shivering, vocalizations, oral behaviors/cross-sucking, fearfulness, playing), and evidence of disease processes (locomotory ability [lameness], cleanliness/fecal soiling [scour], injuries hairless patches, swellings, wounds], dyspnoea/coughing, nasal/ocular discharge, navel swelling/discharge); PM measures include assessment of feeding adequacy (abomasal contents, milk in rumen, visceral fat reserves) and evidence of disease processes (omphalitis, GIT disorders, peritonitis, abscesses [internal and external], arthritis, septicaemia, and pneumonia). Based on similar models in other species, this information can be used in a positive feedback loop not only to protect and improve calf welfare but also to inform on-farm calf welfare management plans, support industry claims regarding animal welfare and benchmark welfare performance nationally and internationally.

Animal Welfare Issues in Capture-Based Aquaculture

Simple Summary

Aquaculture is about farming aquatic animals in certain facilities, in order to meet the global demand for aquatic animal products. However, reproduction and raising of all commercially important aquatic animals under farming conditions are not always feasible or cost-effective. Thus, for some fish and shellfish species, a system that relies on the collection of wild individuals, at various life stages and rearing in controlled facilities, has been employed. These animals, however, are not products of a lengthy domestication process and thus are not used to the artificial environment of the fish farms. The way they respond to the various stressful conditions might be different, compared to the domesticated fish. Therefore, we have to make sure that we use the appropriate rearing methods, for the entire time, so that their impact on the fish welfare is minimized. Apart from the moral obligations, this will also increase the profitability of the activity.

Abstract

Capture-based aquaculture (CBA) represents a type of intensive aquaculture production system for some economically valuable fish species, such as bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus), eel (Anguilla spp.) and Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua). In CBA, fish are captured from the wild in certain periods of the year, and following a recovery phase, they are kept in rearing facilities for a period of time, until they reach the market size. In this case, the fish are wild and have not gone through domestication like other fish species that are reproduced and farmed under the established farming systems. Therefore, these fish are not genetically adapted to live under the intensive farming conditions, and thus their welfare may be compromised in different manners compared to their domesticated counterparts. This review presents an overview of the current situation of CBA, while focusing on the assessment of fish welfare in CBA. The most commonly used fish welfare indicators will be discussed in relation to the different stages of CBA.

Endocrine-Disrupting Compounds in Fish Physiology, with Emphasis on their Effects on the Arginine Vasotocin/Isotocin System

The purposes of this review are to promote better use of existing knowledge of marine pollutants especially endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) and to draw attention to the slow progression of the research on the influence of those compounds on arginine vasotocin/isotocin system (AVT/IT) in fish. EDCs are leading to the degradation of fish habitats, reducing their spawning potential and possibly their population parameters (e.g. growth, maturation), by preventing fish from breeding and rebuilding their populations. Therefore, searching for new welfare indicators such as AVT and IT and developing research procedures mimicking environmental conditions using a versatile fish model is extremely important. Fish species such as Zebrafish (Daniorerio) and round goby (Neogobiusmelanostomus) can be recommended as very suitable modelsfor studying estrogenic EDCs on the AVT/IT system and other hormones involved in the neuroendocrine regulation of physiological processes in fish.These studies would not only improve our understanding of the effects of EDCs on vertebrates but could also help safeguard the well-being of aquatic and terrestrial organisms from the harmful effects of these compounds.

Abattoir-Based Measures to Assess Swine Welfare: Analysis of the Methods Adopted in European Slaughterhouses

Simple Summary

The welfare of pigs is a major concern among some consumers and pig producers. This concern has driven welfare specialists into the validation of methods and protocols that can be used to evaluate the welfare status of pigs on farms. These protocols require the use of animal-, management and resource-based measures, although data collected from the animals are generally considered more useful. However, due to some limitations, these schemes are not always applicable; therefore, the use of simplified schemes involving the collection of data from pigs at the slaughterhouse has been advocated. Methods and scoring schemes recently described and used in studies performed in European slaughterhouses to determine pig welfare and health are reviewed in the present manuscript. A focus on the scoring schemes for lesions of the body and viscera during post-mortem activities at the abattoir is provided. These methods can be used to benchmark a welfare scheme suitable for all European competent authorities and professionals working in the context of pig welfare.

Abstract

The assessment of swine welfare requires feasible, reliable, and reasonable indicators. On-farm evaluation of pig welfare can provide valuable information to veterinarians and farmers. However, such protocols can result expensive and time-consuming. With this regard, an interest in the appraisal of swine welfare at abattoir has grown over the recent years. In particular, the use of certain lesions collected directly from slaughtered animals to determine the welfare status of pigs has been evaluated by several authors. In the present review, the different methods developed to score lesions collected directly from the body and the viscera of animals slaughtered in European abattoirs (“abattoir-based measures”) are presented. The text specifically focuses on the methods currently available in the literature for the scoring of body, pluck and gastric lesions during post-mortem activities. Moreover, the strengths and weaknesses of abattoir-based measures schemes are discussed. To conclude, the future perspectives of the assessment of pig welfare at the slaughterhouse are described, appealing for a benchmarking system that can be systematically used by veterinarians and other professional figures involved in the process.

Varying Opinions about Animal Welfare in the Australian Live Export Industry: A Survey

There is significant public interest in the Australian live animal export industry and a need to develop a program that can measure and monitor animal welfare throughout the supply chain. An online survey of stakeholder opinions of this industry and animal welfare measures was carried out in 2015 with 921 respondents: 30% from the public who identified as animal welfare advocates (AWAs); 44% from the public who did not identify as AWAs (general public; GP); 26% live export industry (LEI) workers. AWA and GP respondents expressed greater concern than LEI respondents for animal welfare throughout the supply chain but had less concern for animals at Australian feedlots than in other parts of the supply chain. The majority of AWA and GP respondents believed data collected on animal welfare should be made public and should be collected by independent welfare officers and used to regulate the industry and impose penalties for poor welfare. LEI workers believed that data should be confidential, collected by LEI workers and used by the industry to self-regulate. AWA and GP respondents rated the importance and practicality of a number of welfare indicators greater than LEI workers, while respondents shared an analogous view of the importance and practicality of these indicators. Results can be used to develop welfare assessments that ensure a better understanding between industry members and those not in the industry, while facilitating welfare improvements and promoting greater transparency for the live export industry.

Behavior and Health Indicators to Assess Cull Cow's Welfare in Livestock Markets

The welfare status of cull cows going through livestock markets was assessed in 12 premises in Chile, using behavioral and health indicators observed during unloading, auction, and loading (once in winter and once in summer). Groups of cows were observed by the same observer and the following indicators were recorded at each stage: slips, falls, balks, turns, jumps, and vocalizations of cows were considered as behavioral events and a proportion was calculated based on the number of observed events per group divided by the number of cows per group to give a behavioral event index (BEI). Health status of the cows was assessed during auction by recording the proportion of cows with low body condition, lameness, udder problems, tegumentary lesions, and tail abnormalities. Handler behavior was assessed using a count of negative tactile interactions (NTI) with the cows, like blows/hits, kicks, and pokes with the devices used to drive them, then a NTI index (NTII) was calculated as for BEI. Using the groups of cows as the statistical unit, statistical models were built and used to identify how NTII, some facilities features and comingling were associated with BEI registered during unloading, auction, and loading and also to calculate if the selling price was associated with the different health problems of cows, using the software MLwiN 3.03. A total of 1,103 groups of cows (n = 3,963 cows) were observed, finding a high percentage of slips and balks, whereas hitting and poking were frequent NTI. The highest mean BEI was observed during unloading in winter (1.10), whilst the lowest one was found during auction in summer (0.34). There was an increase of 0.11 in BEI for every extra unit increase in the NTII by the handlers. The BEI was negatively affected by the winter season compared to summer. Of 1,608 cows, 49.8% had a low body condition, 28.3% had udder problems, 24% were lame, 8.7% presented tegumentary lesions, and 3.1% tail abnormalities. It can be concluded that the health of the cull cows is already compromised when leaving the farms; cow behavior and handler tactile interactions with the cows are useful indicators to assess the welfare of cull cows at livestock markets.

Review of Livestock Welfare Indicators Relevant for the Australian Live Export Industry

Animal welfare is an important issue for the live export industry (LEI), in terms of economic returns, community attitudes and international socio-political relations. Mortality has traditionally been the main welfare measure recorded within the LEI; however, high mortality incidents are usually acted upon after adverse events occur, reducing the scope for proactive welfare enhancement. We reviewed 71 potential animal welfare measures, identifying those measures that would be appropriate for use throughout the LEI for feeder and slaughter livestock species, and categorised these as animal-, environment- and resource-based. We divided the live export supply chain into three sectors: (1) Australian facilities, (2) vessel and (3) destination country facilities. After reviewing the relevant regulations for each sector of the industry, we identified 38 (sector 1), 35 (sector 2) and 26 (sector 3) measures already being collected under current practice. These could be used to form a 'welfare information dashboard': a LEI-specific online interface for collecting data that could contribute towards standardised industry reporting. We identified another 20, 25 and 28 measures that are relevant to each LEI sector (sectors 1, 2, 3, respectively), and that could be developed and integrated into a benchmarking system in the future.

Stunning methods and slaughter of rabbits for human consumption

This opinion on the killing of rabbits for human consumption (‘slaughtering’) responds to two mandates: one from the European Parliament (EP) and the other from the European Commission. The opinion describes stunning methods for rabbits known to the experts in the EFSA working group, which can be used in commercial practice, and which are sufficiently described in scientific and technical literature for the development of an opinion. These are electrical stunning, mechanical stunning with a penetrative and non‐penetrative captive bolt and gas stunning. The latter method is not allowed in the EU anymore following Council Regulation (EC) No 1099/2009, but may still be practiced elsewhere in the world. Related hazards and welfare consequences are also evaluated. To monitor stunning effectiveness as requested by the EP mandate, the opinion suggests the use of indicators for the state of consciousness, selected on the basis of their sensitivity, specificity and ease of use. Similarly, it suggests indicators to confirm animals are dead before dressing. For the European Commission mandate, slaughter processes were assessed from the arrival of rabbits in containers until their death, and grouped in three main phases: pre‐stunning (including arrival, unloading of containers from the truck, lairage, handling/removing of rabbits from containers), stunning (including restraint) and bleeding (including bleeding following stunning and bleeding during slaughter without stunning). Ten welfare consequences resulting from the hazards that rabbits can be exposed to during slaughter are identified: consciousness, animal not dead, thermal stress (heat or cold stress), prolonged thirst, prolonged hunger, restriction of movements, pain, fear, distress and respiratory distress. Welfare consequences and relevant animal‐based measures (indicators) are described. Outcome tables linking hazards, welfare consequences, indicators, origins, preventive and corrective measures are developed for each process. Mitigation measures to minimise welfare consequences are also proposed.

Influence of dietary strategy on progression of health and behaviour in mule ducks reared for fatty liver production

Overfeeding in ducks is questioned because forced introduction of food into the animal and metabolic overload may induce damage to health and discomfort. In this context, the objective of our experiment was to measure the impact of dietary strategy on the progression of animal status evaluated through 28 health and behavioural indicators in ducks reared for fatty liver production. To do this, 320 ducks were forced-fed twice a day from 70 to 90 days of age including 10 days of overfeeding (87 to 96 days). They were divided into two groups differing in the feeding strategy during overfeeding period: a moderate feed intake (MI, an average of 376 g of maize flour per meal, n = 160 ducks) or at high feed intake (HI, 414 g/meal, n = 160 ducks). We evaluated 28 indicators related to Good feeding (n = 3), Good housing (n = 4), Good health (n = 10) and Appropriate behaviour (n = 11) principles, taken from the European Welfare Quality Consortium® at four stages: before overfeeding (BEF; 80 days), at the beginning (88 days), the middle (MID; 92 days) or the end of overfeeding (END; 96 days). Animals were slaughtered at 93 and 97 days to measure fatty liver weight at MID and END stages (n = 80 per group). The results showed that dietary strategy influenced the fatty liver weight at MID (+23% in HI v. MI group; P < 0;05) and END stage (+23%; P < 0.05). Assessment stage influenced 13 of the 28 indicators measured. Among these 13 indicators, (i) BEF differed from END stage for 7 indicators and (ii) the dietary strategy degraded all the indicators chosen to evaluate the Good feeding (2/2) principle, but had no effect on the indicators related to the Good health (0/4) principle while (iii) most of the indicators that evaluated Good housing (2/3) and Appropriate behaviour (2/4) principles were affected by an interaction between both factors. Our results suggest that (i) duck fattening status, including the fatty liver weight, and several welfare indicators progressed during the fatty liver production process; and (ii) feeding strategy influenced or even interacted with this progression.

Scientific opinion concerning the killing of rabbits for purposes other than slaughter

Rabbits of different ages may have to be killed on-farm for purposes other than slaughter (where slaughter is defined as killing for human consumption) either individually or on a large scale (e.g. for production reasons or for disease control). The purpose of this opinion was to assess the risks associated to the on-farm killing of rabbits. The processes during on-farm killing that were assessed included handling, stunning and/or killing methods (including restraint). The latter were grouped into four categories: electrical methods, mechanical methods, controlled atmosphere method and lethal injection. In total, 14 hazards were identified and characterised, most of these related to stunning and/or killing. The staff was identified as the origin for all hazards, either due to lack of the appropriate skill sets needed to perform tasks or due to fatigue. Possible corrective and preventive measures were assessed: measures to correct hazards were identified for five hazards and the staff was shown to have a crucial role in prevention. Five welfare consequences of the welfare hazards to which rabbits can be exposed to during on-farm killing were identified: not being dead, consciousness, pain, fear and distress. Welfare consequences and relevant animal-based measures were described. Outcome tables linking hazards, welfare consequences, animal-based measures, origins, preventive and corrective measures were developed for each process. Mitigation measures to minimise welfare consequences are proposed.

Assessment of welfare indicators in dairy farms offering pasture at differing levels

In terms of animal welfare, farming systems of dairy cows are perceived positively by consumers when compared to pigs or poultry. A main reason is that the majority of consumers associate dairy farming with pasture, which in turn they relate with benefits for animal health and welfare. However, holistic scientific assessments of the effects of pasturing on animal welfare are rare. Hence, it was the aim to study the animal welfare level in 61 German loose housing dairy farms by using the measures of the Welfare Quality® protocol for dairy cattle (WQP). Data were collected twice per farm at the end of the pasture season (July to October) and approximately 6 months later at the end of the barn season (December to April). Farms were classified based on the duration cows had access to pasture per day during the pasture season: group 1 (G1)>10 h; group 2 (G2) 6 to 10 h; group 3 (G3)<6 h and group 4 (G4) without pasture access. The average herd size was 129 Holstein-Friesian or Red-Holstein cows (range 58 to 527). In addition to WQP data, performance data were gathered from routine herd data recordings. The indicators were aggregated to criteria applying the scoring system of the WQP. G4 received lower scores at the first than at the second visit for the criterion absence of hunger, while there were no differences between visits in the other groups (P=0.58 - group×farm visit effect). All pasturing groups were scored better at the end of the pasture season than G4 for the criterion comfort around resting (P<0.01). Compared with G1 for both farm visits and G2 for the end of the barn season, G4 reached inferior scores for the criterion absence of injuries, including indicators such as hairless patches, lesions, and swellings and lameness. At both assessments G2 was scored higher than the other groups for the criterion absence of diseases (P=0.04). In conclusion, pasture access had positive effects only on selected welfare indicators, however, these effects were not maintained throughout the barn season.

The Use of Qualitative Behaviour Assessment for the On-Farm Welfare Assessment of Dairy Goats

Simple Summary

The use of feasible indicators to evaluate animals’ emotional states in farm animals is strongly encouraged for welfare assessment. The inclusion of qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA) in on-farm protocols has been constantly increasing during the last few years; but its association with other welfare measures has been scarcely investigated so far. In the present study; we investigated whether QBA shows a meaningful coherence with other measures included in the AWIN (Animal Welfare Indicators) welfare assessment protocol for dairy goats. We confirmed that QBA can clearly discern mood (from Agitated/Alert to Content/Relaxed) and the level of activity (from Bored to Lively) in goats. Furthermore; goats with a shiny hair coat seem more relaxed and sociable than goats with a poor hair coat condition. In contrast; farms where the workload for the stockperson is high have goats that were observed as more bored and suffering; probably because farmers do not invest enough time in taking care of their animals. Even though we found only few relations between QBA and the other measures of the AWIN welfare assessment protocol; the holistic approach of QBA can be useful to integrate the assessment and give a different perspective on the complexity of animals’ emotions and overall welfare state.

Abstract

This research investigated whether using qualitative behaviour assessment (QBA) with a fixed list of descriptors may be related to quantitative animal- (ABM) and resource-based (RBM) measures included in the AWIN (Animal Welfare Indicators) welfare assessment prototype protocol for goats, tested in 60 farms. A principal component analysis (PCA) was conducted on QBA descriptors; then PCs were correlated to some ABMs and RBMs. Subsequently, a combined PCA merged QBA scores, ABMs and RBMs. The study confirms that QBA can identify the differences in goats’ emotions, but only few significant correlations were found with ABMs and RBMs. In addition, the combined PCA revealed that goats with a normal hair coat were scored as more relaxed and sociable. A high farm workload was related to bored and suffering goats, probably because farmers that can devote less time to animals may fail to recognise important signals from them. Goats were scored as sociable, but also alert, in response to the presence of an outdoor run, probably because when outdoors they received more stimuli than indoors and were more attentive to the surroundings. Notwithstanding these results, the holistic approach of QBA may allow to register animals’ welfare from a different perspective and be complementary to other measures.

Encoding of Emotional Valence in Wild Boar (Sus scrofa) Calls

Simple Summary

Animal welfare today is assessed based on both the physical and mental health of animals. However, measuring animal mental health, which includes emotions (i.e., short-term positive or negative reactions to specific events), remains a challenge. Since animals are known to use vocalizations to communicate their emotions to their peers, knowledge about how the structure of vocalizations changes with emotions could be very useful in order to develop noninvasive indicators for assessing animal welfare under captive conditions. The aim of this study was thus to investigate if the type of calls (i.e., grunt, scream, or squeal) or the acoustic structure of the calls emitted by captive wild boars changed according to the emotions they were experiencing. We found that wild boars used different types of calls in positive and negative situations. We also found that their acoustic structure changed according to the emotions. Indeed, calls produced in positive situations were generally shorter and at lower frequencies than those produced in negative situations. It thus seems that wild boars express their emotional state through their vocalizations. Overall, our study gives us better knowledge about how the emotions of captive wild boars could be assessed, and how this compares to domestic pigs.

Abstract

Measuring emotions in nonhuman mammals is challenging. As animals are not able to verbally report how they feel, we need to find reliable indicators to assess their emotional state. Emotions can be described using two key dimensions: valence (negative or positive) and arousal (bodily activation or excitation). In this study, we investigated vocal expression of emotional valence in wild boars (Sus scrofa). The animals were observed in three naturally occurring situations: anticipation of a food reward (positive), affiliative interactions (positive), and agonistic interactions (negative). Body movement was used as an indicator of emotional arousal to control for the effect of this dimension. We found that screams and squeals were mostly produced during negative situations, and grunts during positive situations. Additionally, the energy quartiles, duration, formants, and harmonicity indicated valence across call types and situations. The mean of the first and second formants also indicated valence, but varied according to the call type. Our results suggest that wild boars can vocally express their emotional states. Some of these indicators could allow us to identify the emotional valence that wild boars are experiencing during vocal production and thus inform us about their welfare.

Stakeholder Perceptions of Welfare Issues and Indicators for Extensively Managed Sheep in Australia

Simple Summary

This survey was designed as the first step in the development of a welfare assessment framework with the aim of identifying potential causes of welfare compromise and useful indicators for sheep in extensive Australian production systems. We asked the general public, sheep producers, service providers and sheep industry related scientists to provide their thoughts on the importance of a range of sheep welfare issues and possible key indicators. All respondents thought sheep welfare was adequate but that improvement was desired. Issues perceived to cause the most risk to sheep related to factors influenced by the environment (i.e., nutrition and food supply), heat stress and lameness while key indicators useful to assess welfare were nutrition and food availability, mortality/management issues, pain and fear related indicators, and numbers of illness/injuries. Women and the general public perceived all issues and indicators to be more important than other groups of respondents. These results highlight the need to consult a wide range of stakeholders in order to develop a broadly acceptable assessment system.

Abstract

An online survey was designed to form the basis of a framework for the welfare assessment of extensively managed sheep in Australia. The survey focused on welfare compromise and useful welfare indicators. A total of 952 people completed the survey in its entirety, representing four stakeholder groups: Public (53.6%), Producer (27.4%), Scientist (9.9%), and Service provider (9.1%). Animal welfare was considered to be important by all participating groups in this survey (average score of 3.78/4). Respondents felt the welfare of grazing sheep was generally adequate but improvement was desired (2.98/5), with female members of the public rating sheep welfare significantly worse than other respondents (p < 0.05). Environmental issues were considered to pose the greatest risk to welfare (3.87/5), followed by heat stress (3.79), lameness (3.57) and husbandry practices (3.37). Key indicators recognised by all respondents were those associated with pain and fear (3.98/5), nutrition (4.23), mortality/management (4.27), food on offer (4.41) and number of illness/injures in a flock (4.33). There were gender and stakeholder differences in the perceived importance of both welfare issues and indicators with women and the public consistently rating issues (all p < 0.01) and indicators (all p < 0.05) to be of greater significance than other respondents. These results highlight the importance of including all stakeholders and an even balance of genders when developing a welfare framework that can address both practical and societal concerns.

An epidemiological analysis of equine welfare data from regulatory inspections by the official competent authorities

Determining welfare status in a population is the first step in efforts to improve welfare. The primary objective of this study was to explore a new epidemiological approach for analysis of data from official competent authorities that pertain to compliance with animal welfare legislation. We reviewed data already routinely collected as part of Swedish official animal welfare inspections for 2010-13, using a checklist containing 45 checkpoints (CPs). These covered animal-, resource- and management-based measures of equine welfare. The animal-based CPs were measures that directly related to the animal and included social contact, body condition, hoof condition and cleanliness. Non-compliance with one or more of the animal-based CPs was used as a binary outcome of poor equine welfare; 95% confidence intervals (CI) were estimated using the exact binomial distribution. Associations were determined using multivariable logistic regression, adjusting for clustering on premises. Resource- and management-based CPs (model inputs) were reduced by principal component analysis. Other input factors included premises characteristics (e.g. size, location) and inspection characteristics (e.g. type of inspection). There were 30 053 premises with horses from 21 counties registered by the Swedish Board of Agriculture. In total 13 321 inspections of premises were conducted at 28.4% (n=8532) of all registered premises. For random inspections, the premises-prevalence of poor equine welfare was 9.5% (95% CI 7.5, 11.9). Factors associated with poor equine welfare were non-compliance with requirements for supervision, care or feeding of horses, facility design, personnel, stable hygiene, pasture and exercise area maintenance, as well as the owner not being notified of the inspection, a previous complaint or deficiency, spring compared with autumn, and not operating as a professional equine business. Horses at premises compliant with stabling and shelter requirements had significantly better welfare if they also complied with documentation requirements. We present a novel approach for analysis of equine welfare data from regulatory inspections by the official competent authorities, and propose on-going analyses and benchmarking of trends in animal-based measures over time. We also suggest how such a database could be further improved to facilitate future epidemiological analyses of risk factors associated with poor equine welfare. The study has implications for other competent authorities and researchers collaborating in the area of animal welfare epidemiology.

Use of space and its impact on the welfare of laying hens in a commercial free-range system

The aim of this study was to explore the factors influencing patterns of space use of commercial free-range laying hens and their relation to welfare indicators. Three free-range laying hen flocks were studied during one production cycle by collecting spatial locations on 150 individually tagged hens per flock. At the end of production, welfare and morphometric measures were collected. The results indicated that use of the outdoor area was lower during midday (P < 0.05), but remained stable across age periods (P > 0.05). Tagged hens were classified according to their use of the outdoor area (heavy, medium, light, or never) per age period. A total of 49.5% were never observed using the outdoor area, which was higher than any other category (P < 0.05). In addition, the early experience of the hens using the outdoor area during the first 16 wk (20 to 36 wk) determined the level of use of the outdoor area at later ages (P < 0.05). Most use of space parameters did not vary according to age period (P > 0.05); only activity center indoors increased (P < 0.05), while mean distance from the hen house tended to increase (P = 0.053). However, birds with a higher frequency of use of the outdoor area had larger home ranges and activity centers (r = 0.956, r = 0.964 P < 0.05, respectively) and showed lower plumage damage (r = -0.337, P < 0.05) and a lower incidence of footpad dermatitis (r = -0.307, P < 0.05). On the contrary, birds showing higher total walked distance indoors showed a higher incidence of footpad dermatitis (r = 0.329, P < 0.01). We conclude that there exist individual differences in the use of the outdoor area, with early experience (20 to 36 weeks) during the production period being the most relevant factor affecting outdoor area use. Birds visiting the outdoor area more frequently also used larger areas. In addition, individual patterns of space use had some relevance on the incidence on foot pad dermatitis and plumage condition.

The transect method: a novel approach to on-farm welfare assessment of commercial turkeys

Currently, no animal-based protocol for on-farm welfare assessment of commercial turkeys is available. The birds' size and flighty nature make obtaining a representative sample using traditional methods difficult. The transect walks (TW) approach provides a potential alternative for on-farm assessments of turkey welfare. We compared the TW approach with a traditional method, and data collected as the birds were moved out of the house during the load out process (L). Ten commercial 19- to 20-week-old Hybrid turkey flocks were evaluated (1 flock/house/farm). Half of the flocks were housed on farms deemed as "faring well" by the company, the other half were on "suboptimal" farms. Each house was subdivided longitudinally into 4 transects. Two observers walked the transects in random order, recording the total number of birds per transect that were immobile; lame; aggressive towards a mate; interacting with humans; with visible head, vent, or back wounds; engaging in mounting behaviors; small; featherless; dirty; sick; terminal; or dead. Flocks were re-evaluated on the same day using the individual sampling method (S), where randomly selected birds were scored as they took 10 steps. Flocks were re-assessed within 48 h of the transect evaluation, as birds were funneled out of the house during load out. Using ANOVAs we determined the effects of observers, method, management, and their interactions on proportions of turkeys per house within each category. Outcome parameters were not affected by management (P>0.05 for all) or observer (P>0.05 for most), but an assessment method effect was detected (P<0.05). S differed from the 2 other methods (P<0.05) for most parameters except aggression towards a mate, back wounds, dirty, sick, and vent wounds. Differences were not detected between data collected using TW and during L, except for dead (P=0.0007) and immobile (P=0.007). Results suggest that the TW method is a promising tool for on-farm turkey welfare assessment as it produced results similar to those obtained at L when all birds could be scored individually.

Does group size have an impact on welfare indicators in fattening pigs?

Production systems for fattening pigs have been characterized over the last 2 decades by rising farm sizes coupled with increasing group sizes. These developments resulted in a serious public discussion regarding animal welfare and health in these intensive production systems. Even though large farm and group sizes came under severe criticism, it is still unknown whether these factors indeed negatively affect animal welfare. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the effect of group size (30 pigs/pen) on various animal-based measures of the Welfare Quality(®) protocol for growing pigs under conventional fattening conditions. A total of 60 conventional pig fattening farms with different group sizes in Germany were included. Moderate bursitis (35%) was found as the most prevalent indicator of welfare-related problems, while its prevalence increased with age during the fattening period. However, differences between group sizes were not detected (P>0.05). The prevalence of moderately soiled bodies increased from 9.7% at the start to 14.2% at the end of the fattening period, whereas large pens showed a higher prevalence (15.8%) than small pens (10.4%; P<0.05). With increasing group size, the incidence of moderate wounds with 8.5% and 11.3% in small- and medium-sized pens, respectively, was lower (P<0.05) than in large-sized ones (16.3%). Contrary to bursitis and dirtiness, its prevalence decreased during the fattening period. Moderate manure was less often found in pigs fed by a dry feeder than in those fed by a liquid feeding system (P<0.05). The human-animal relationship was improved in large in comparison to small groups. On the contrary, negative social behaviour was found more often in large groups. Exploration of enrichment material decreased with increasing live weight. Given that all animals were tail-docked, tail biting was observed at a very low rate of 1.9%. In conclusion, the results indicate that BW and feeding system are determining factors for the welfare status, while group size was not proved to affect the welfare level under the studied conditions of pig fattening.