Inhibitor of differentiation proteins protect against oxidative stress by regulating the antioxidant-mitochondrial response in mouse beta cells

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS

Oxidative stress is implicated in beta cell glucotoxicity in type 2 diabetes. Inhibitor of differentiation (ID) proteins are transcriptional regulators induced by hyperglycaemia in islets, but the mechanisms involved and their role in beta cells are not clear. Here we investigated whether or not oxidative stress regulates ID levels in beta cells and the role of ID proteins in beta cells during oxidative stress.

METHODS

MIN6 cells were cultured in H2O2 or ribose to induce oxidative stress. ID1, ID3 and small MAF proteins (MAFF, MAFG and MAFK) were inhibited using small interfering RNA. Isolated islets from Id1(-/-), Id3(-/-) and diabetic db/db mice were used.

RESULTS

ID1-4 expression was upregulated in vivo in the islets of diabetic db/db mice and stimulated in vitro by ribose and H2O2. Id1/3 inhibition reduced the expression of multiple antioxidant genes and potentiated oxidative stress-induced apoptosis. This finding was associated with increased levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species, altered mitochondrial morphology and reduced expression of Tfam, which encodes a mitochondrial transcription factor, and respiratory chain components. Id1/3 inhibition also reduced the expression of small MAF transcription factors (MafF, MafG and MafK), interacting partners of nuclear factor, erythroid 2-like 2 (NFE2L2), master regulator of the antioxidant response. Inhibition of small MAFs reduced the expression of antioxidant genes and potentiated oxidative stress-induced apoptosis, thus recapitulating the effects of Id1/3 inhibition.

CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION

Our study identifies IDs as a novel family of oxidative stress-responsive proteins in beta cells. IDs are crucial regulators of the adaptive antioxidant-mitochondrial response that promotes beta cell survival during oxidative stress through a novel link to the NFE2L2-small MAF pathway.

Declining signal dependence of Nrf2-MafS-regulated gene expression correlates with aging phenotypes

Aging is a degenerative process characterized by declining molecular, cell and organ functions, and accompanied by the progressive accumulation of oxidatively damaged macromolecules. This increased oxidative damage may be causally related to an age-associated dysfunction of defense mechanisms, which effectively protect young individuals from oxidative insults. Consistently, older organisms are more sensitive to acute oxidative stress exposures than young ones. In studies on the Drosophila Nrf2 transcription factor CncC, we have investigated possible causes for this loss of stress resistance and its connection to the aging process. Nrf2 is a master regulator of antioxidant and stress defense gene expression with established functions in the control of longevity. Here, we show that the expression of protective Nrf2/CncC target genes in unstressed conditions does not generally decrease in older flies. However, aging flies progressively lose the ability to activate Nrf2 targets in response to acute stress exposure. We propose that the resulting inability to dynamically adjust the expression of Nrf2 target genes to the organism's internal and external conditions contributes to age-related loss of homeostasis and fitness. In support of this hypothesis, we find the Drosophila small Maf protein, MafS, an Nrf2 dimerization partner, to be critical to maintain responsiveness of the Nrf2 system: overexpression of MafS in older flies preserves Nrf2/CncC signaling competence and antagonizes age-associated functional decline. The maintenance of acute stress resistance, motor function, and heart performance in aging flies overexpressing MafS supports a critical role for signal responsiveness of Nrf2 function in promoting youthful phenotypes.

Heterodimerization with small Maf proteins enhances nuclear retention of Nrf2 via masking the NESzip motif

Nrf2 is the key transcription factor regulating the antioxidant response. When exposed to oxidative stress, Nrf2 translocates to cell nucleus and forms heterodimer with small Maf proteins (sMaf). Nrf2/sMaf heterodimer binds specifically to a cis-acting enhancer called antioxidant response element and initiates transcription of a battery of antioxidant and detoxification genes. Nrf2 possesses a NESzip motif (nuclear export signal co-localized with the leucine zipper (ZIP) domain). Heterodimerization with MafG via ZIP-ZIP binding enhanced Nrf2 nuclear retention, which could be abrogated by the deletion of the ZIP domain or site-directed mutations targeting at the ZIP domain. In addition, dimerization with MafG precluded Nrf2zip/CRM1 binding, suggesting that Nrf2/MafG heterodimerization may simultaneously mask the NESzip motif. MafG-mediated nuclear retention may enable Nrf2 proteins to evade cytosolic proteasomal degradation and consequently stabilize Nrf2 signaling. For the first time, we show that under the physiological condition, the NESzip motif can be switched-off by heterodimerization.

Upregulation of thioredoxin system via Nrf2-antioxidant responsive element pathway in adaptive-retinal neuroprotection in vivo and in vitro

We tested the hypothesis that stress responses mediated by the Nrf2-antioxidant responsive element (ARE) pathway are involved in the initiation of retinal neuroprotection provided by bright-cyclic-light rearing. Albino rats born and raised in dim (5 lux) or bright (400 lux) cyclic light were exposed to damaging light (3000 lux, 6 h). After exposure, the outer nuclear layer thickness and area and the electroretinogram a- and b-wave amplitudes were significantly reduced in the dim-light-reared rats compared to the bright-light-reared rats, demonstrating a light adaptation neuroprotection phenomenon. In bright-cyclic-light-reared rats, the retinal levels of thioredoxin (Trx) (2.4-fold), Trx reductase (TrxR) (2.9-fold), and proteins modified by 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) (1.5-fold) were upregulated by Western blot analyses, and the nuclear translocation of Nrf2 (2.2-fold) and the DNA binding activity of Nrf2, small Maf, and cJun to the ARE were increased as determined by electrophoretic mobility shift assays. In mouse photoreceptor-derived 661W cells, pretreatment with a sublethal dose of 4-HNE protected against H(2)O(2)-induced cell damage. Treatment with 4-HNE upregulated cellular Trx, TrxR, and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) levels in addition to DNA binding activity of Nrf2, small Maf, and cJun to the ARE. Downregulation of Nrf2 using RNA interference technology diminished 4-HNE-mediated upregulation of Trx and Trx reductase but did not affect the upregulation of HO-1 by 4-HNE. Cytoprotection by 4-HNE pretreatment against H(2)O(2)-induced cell damage was not observed in 661W cells with a silenced Nrf2 gene. The results suggest that upregulation of the Trx system by 4-HNE via the Nrf2-ARE pathway may be involved in the molecular mechanism of the retinal neuroprotection phenomenon.

Regulation of the MAFF transcription factor by proinflammatory cytokines in myometrial cells

The MAF (proto-)oncogene family of basic-leucine zipper transcription factors plays crucial roles in the control of mammalian gene expression and development. Here we analyzed the regulation of the human MAFF gene, coding for a small MAF transcription factor, in uterine smooth muscle cells. We found that MAFF transcript levels are induced by proinflammatory cytokines in PHM1-31 myometrial cells. We observed an important induction by interleukin 1 beta (IL1B) and a weaker upregulation by tumor necrosis factor (TNF), whereas interleukin 6 (IL6) treatment had no effect. Time course experiments revealed a rapid induction of MAFF transcripts within 30 min following IL1B treatment. The presence of actinomycin D inhibited the upregulation, suggesting that regulation of MAFF mRNA levels occurs at the transcriptional level. We generated a MAFF-specific antiserum and determined that MAFF protein was also induced by TNF and IL1B in PHM1-31 cells. In contrast, it was particularly interesting that the transcript and protein levels of the highly homologous MAFG and MAFK genes are not modulated by these cytokines. Our results suggest a possible specific role for MAFF in proinflammatory cytokine-mediated control of myometrial gene expression and provide the first link between a small MAF transcription factor and the inflammatory response.