Environmental radioactivity in the South Urals 1990-1997. An international study supported by INTAS, EC and national funding

Radioecological studies carried out in a joint co-operation between Russian, Ukrainian and Danish Laboratories are reported. The environmental impact of routine, discharges as well as accidental events, notably the Kyshtym accident in 1957 and the Karachay wind dispersion in 1968 have been studied. From measurements and based on model assumptions it has been estimated that the Ob river system outside Mayak, i.e. first of all the Techa and Iset rivers and their floodplains contain 0.1 PBq 90Sr, 0.3 PBq 137Cs and 0.8 TBq 239, 240Pu. The uncertainty of these estimates is a factor of 3-4. The present contamination from the Kyshtym accident outside the Mayak area is calculated to 0.1-0.5 PBq 90Sr and from the Karachay incident the contamination is 0.05-0.1 Bq 137Cs. The environmental contaminations with Pu from these two events are in the order of 1 TBq. The occurrence of 99Tc, 129I and 237Np in highly contaminated Techa river sediments collected outside Mayak is for the first time reported.

Radioactive contamination in the Arctic--sources, dose assessment and potential risks

Arctic residents, whose diets comprise a large proportion of traditional terrestrial and freshwater foodstuffs, have received the highest radiation exposures to artificial radionuclides in the Arctic. Doses to members of both the average population and selected indigenous population groups in the Arctic depend on the rates of consumption of locally-derived terrestrial and freshwater foodstuffs, including reindeer/caribou meat, freshwater fish, goat cheese, berries, mushrooms and lamb. The vulnerability of arctic populations, especially indigenous peoples, to radiocaesium deposition is much greater than for temperate populations due to the importance of terrestrial, semi-natural exposure pathways where there is high radiocaesium transfer and a long ecological half-life for this radionuclide. In contrast, arctic residents with diets largely comprising marine foodstuffs have received comparatively low radiation exposures because of the lower levels of contamination of marine organisms. Using arctic-specific information, the predicted collective dose is five times higher than that estimated by UNSCEAR for temperate areas. The greatest threats to human health and the environment posed by human and industrial activities in the Arctic are associated with the potential for accidents in the civilian and military nuclear sectors. Of most concern are the consequences of potential accidents in nuclear power plant reactors, during the handling and storage of nuclear weapons, in the decommissioning of nuclear submarines and in the disposal of spent nuclear fuel from vessels. It is important to foster a close association between risk assessment and practical programmes for the purposes of improving monitoring, formulating response strategies and implementing action plans.

Environmental radioactive contamination in Greenland: a 35 years retrospect

Environmental studies of anthropogenic radionuclides in Greenland over four decades are reported. The studies have comprised the marine as well as the terrestrial environments and emphasis has been laid on measurements of 90Sr and 137Cs. The temporal and the spatial trends of these radionuclides are described. The radiation exposure from consumption of locally produced diets has been calculated from consumption rates and the infinite time integrated levels of 90Sr and 137Cs concentrations in the various food products. Compared with most other Arctic people, the Greenlanders have received relatively low doses from anthropogenic radionuclides. There are several reasons for this, first of all, because of the relatively high consumption of marine products compared with terrestrial products. Secondly, because winter slaughtering of reindeer is less frequent in Greenland than in other Arctic countries and Greenland reindeer consume, in general, less lichen than most other Arctic reinder, and thirdly, because the transfer from deposition to lichen in Greenland seems lower than in other Arctic areas.

Comparison of contaminants from different trophic levels and ecosystems

The present paper provides an overview of the priority contaminants and media from the Greenland part of the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Program. Levels and accumulation patterns of heavy metals, POPs and a radionuclide (137Cs) are compared from the terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems. Of the nine compounds presented, seven (Cd, Hg, Se, sigma PCB, sigma DDT, sigma HCH, HCB) increased in concentration towards higher trophic levels. For these contaminants the concentrations in soil and aquatic sediment were in the same order of magnitude, whereas the concentrations in marine biota were higher than found in the freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems probably due to the presence of longer food chains. Pb and 137Cs showed the reverse pattern compared with the other compounds. The concentrations in soil and aquatic sediments decreased in the order terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems, which was reflected in the biota as well. Reindeer had similar or lower levels of Pb and 137Cs than lichens. Levels of Pb and 137Cs in marine biota did not show the same clear increase towards higher trophic as found for the other analysed compounds. Greenland Inuit contains considerably less mercury but higher levels of sigma PCB, sigma DDT and HCB than other Arctic marine top consumers.

Marine radioactivity in the Arctic: a retrospect of environmental studies in Greenland waters with emphasis on transport of 90Sr and 137Cs with the East Greenland Current

The waters around Greenland have received radioactive contamination from three major sources: Global fallout, discharges from the nuclear fuel reprocessing plant Sellafield in the UK, and the Chernobyl accident in the Former Soviet Union (FSU). The global fallout peaked in the early 1960s. The radiologically most important radionuclides from this source are 90Sr and 137Cs. The input of global fallout to arctic waters was direct deposition from the atmosphere and indirect delivery through river run off and advection from the Atlantic Ocean via the north-east Atlantic current system. The waterborne discharges from Sellafield which were at their peak between 1974 and 1981 contributed primarily 137Cs, although some 90Sr was also discharged. The Chernobyl accident in 1986 was characterised by its substantial atmospheric release of radiocaesium (134Cs and 137Cs). Other sources may, however, also have contributed to the radioactivity in the Greenland waters. Examples include La Hague, France, and radioactive discharges to the great Siberian rivers (Ob, Yenisey and Lena) from nuclear activities in the Former Soviet Union or the local fallout from the Novaya Zemlya nuclear weapons test site. Dumping of nuclear waste in the Kara and Barents Seas may be another, although minor source. From measurements in Greenland waters carried out since 1962 the transport of radionuclides with the East Greenland Current is calculated and compared with the estimated inputs of 90Sr and 137Cs to the Arctic Ocean. This study focus on 90Sr and 137Cs because the longest time series are available for these two radionuclides.

Radioactive contamination of the Techa River, the Urals

The Techa River in the Urals was contaminated with high-level radioactive waste from the MAJAK nuclear installation around 1950. The total discharge to the river amounted to 100 PBq with 90Sr and 137Cs contributing approximately 10 PBq each. This study has shown that the river presently contains approximately 0.3 TBq 90Sr, > 6 TBq 137Cs, and approximately 8 GBq 239,240Pu. The estimates were made for the part of the river starting 50 km from the point of discharge and ending 240 km downstream at the confluence with the Iset River. Radioactivity was measured only in the upper 0.10-m sediments layer. The external dose rates from the contamination range from 0.1-30 microGy h-1. The activity concentrations decrease exponentially or by power functions with distance.

[The radioecological problems of Eurasia and the sources of radioactive environmental contamination in the former USSR]

There is three major sites of radioactive environmental contamination in the former USSR: the Chelyabinsk region in the Urals, Chernobyl NPP in Ukraine and Novaya Zemlya in the Arctic Ocean. The first mentioned is the most important with regard to local (potential) contamination, the last one dominates the global contamination. A number of sites and sources are less well known with regard to environmental contamination. This is thus the case for the plutonium production factories at Tomsk and Dodonovo. More information on nuclear reactors in lost or dumped submarines is also needed. From a global point of view reliable assessment of the radioactive run-off from land and deposits of nuclear waste in the Arctic Ocean are in particular pertinent.

Concept of seasonality in the light of the Chernobyl accident

Seasonality could have a strong influence on the radiological impact of environmental radioactive contamination. Short-lived radionuclides (e.g., 131l) and those that mainly enter the food chain by direct contamination (e.g., 137Cs) are especially important in this context. In particular, the contamination of cereals is influenced by seasonality. For temperate latitudes it is generally true that radioactive contamination during winter, when the fields lie fallow and the domestic animals are stabled, will result in a significantly lower radiological impact than if a similar contamination were to take place in the summer shortly before harvesting. The impact of the Chernobyl accident on the radioactive contamination of human diet was strongly influenced by seasonality.

Environmental radiation and radioactive releases

Today the most important anthropogenic radiation comes from atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons carried out 20-30 years ago, authorized discharges to the sea from nuclear reprocessing plants, and from the Chernobyl accident in 1986. In the past decade the International Union of Radioecologists (IUR) has contributed to improved international co-operation among radioecologists from all parts of the world through its creation of a number of working groups for specific radioecological problems. More than 30 years of radioecological studies have probably made the radioactive contamination of our environment the best-understood of all present pollution problems. This review indicates the doses to man received from the important anthropogenic sources, as well as those from natural background radiation. It appears that in a global perspective the latter is by far the most important contributor.

Further studies of plutonium and americium at Thule, Greenland

Eleven years after the accidental loss of nuclear weapons in 1968, the fourth scientific expedition to Thule occurred. The estimated inventory of 1 TBq 239,240Pu in the marine sediments was unchanged when compared with the estimate based on the 1974 data. Plutonium from the accident had moved further away from the impact point and at some locations the vertical distribution indicated a downward displacement of Pu in the sediment column since 1974. Seawater and seaplants showed no evidence of the presence of Pu from sources other than fallout; but Pu in benthos varied nearly proportionally with the levels in sediments. From the measurements of 239,240Pu in the Macoma community since 1970, the transfer factor to this community was estimated at 0.01 Bq a per Bq released to the sediments. The inventory of 241Am was 0.1 TBq. The vertical distribution of Am in sediments did not differ from that of Pu, but in benthos 241Am/239,240Pu were two times higher than in sediments. Seaplants showed the same value of Am/Pu as seawater. There was no indication of any biomagnification of Pu or Am through the marine food chains at Thule.

Environmental radioactivity in Greenland in 1977

Measurements of fallout radioactivity in Greenland in 1977 are reported. Strontium-90 (and Cesium-137 in most cases) was determined in samples of precipitation, sea water, vegetation, animals, and drinking water. Estimates are given of the mean contents of 90Sr and 137Cs in the human diet in Greenland in 1977.

Environmental radioactivity in the Faroes in 1977

Measurements of fallout radioactivity in the Faroes in 1967 are presented. Strontium-90 (and 137Cs in most cases) was determined in regularly collected samples of precipitation, grass, milk, fish, sea water, bread, and drinking water. In addition, analyses were made of spot samples of lamb, sea birds, potatoes, sea plants, vegetables, eggs, and human bone. Estimates are given of the mean contents of 90Sr and 137Cs in the human diet in the Faroes in 1977.

Environmental radioactivity in the Faroes in 1976

Measurements of fall-out radioactivity in the Faroes in 1976 are presented. Strontium-90 (and 137Cs in most cases) was determined in regularly collected samples of precipitation, grass, milk, fish, sea water, bread, and drinking water. In addition, analyses were made of spot samples of lamb, sea birds, potatoes, sea plants, vegetables, eggs, and human bone. Estimates are given of the mean contents of 90Sr and 137Cs in the human diet in the Faroes in 1976.

Environmental radioactivity in Greenland in 1976

Measurements of fall-out radioactivity in Greenland in 1976 are reported. Strontium-90 (and Caesium-137 in most cases) was determined in samples of precipitation, sea water, vegetation, animals, and drinking water. Estimates are given of the mean contents of 90Sr and 137Cs in the human diet in Greenland in 1976.

Environmental Radioactivity in the Faroes in 1974

Measurements of fall-out radioactivity in the Faroes in 1974 are presented. Strontium-90 (and 137Cs in most cases) was determined in regularly collected samples of precipitation, grass, milk, fish, sea water, bread, and drinking water. In addition, analyses were made of spotsamples of lamb, potatoes, sea plants, vegetables, eggs, and human bone. Estimates are given of the mean contents of 90Sr and 137Cs in the human diet in the Faroes in 1974. Whole body measurements were made on six individuals from the Faroes.

Environmental radioactivity in Greenland in 1974

Measurements of fall-out radioactivity in Greenland in 1974 are reported. Strontium-90 (and Caesium-137 in most cases) was determined in samples of precipitation, sea water, vegetation, animals, and drinking water. Estimates are given of the mean contents of 90Sr and 137Cs in the human diet in Greenland in 1974. Three Greenlanders were measured by wholebody counting.

Environmental Radioactivity in Denmark in 1974

The present report deals with the measurement of fall-out radioactivity in Denmark in 1974. Strontium-90 was determined in samples from all over the country of precipitation, soil, ground water, sea water, grass, dried milk, fresh milk, grain, bread, potatoes, vegetables, fruit, total diet, drinking water, and human bone. Furthermore, 90Sr was determined in local samples of air, rain water, grass, sea plants, fish, and meat. Caesium-137 was determined in soil, sea water, milk, grain products, potatoes, vegetables, fruit, total diet, fish, and meat. It was also measured by wholebody-counting of a control group at Tisø. Estimates of the mean contents of radiostrontium and radiocaesium in the human diet in Denmark during 1974 are given. The gamma-background was measured regularly at locations around Risø, at ten of the State experimental farms, in one area in Zealand, one in Jutland, and along the shores of the Great Belt. Finally the report includes routine surveys of environmental samples from the Risø area.

Secretion of iodine 131 in bull semen compared to blood plasma and blood corpuscles

Iodine 131 is among the biologically most important fission products. ¹³¹I decays with a half life of 8.05 days. The metabolism of ¹³¹I and especially its secretion into cow’s milk has been widely studied.

Europium-155 in debris from nuclear weapons

The lithium-drifted germanium detector enables determination of europium-155 on a routine basis in environmental samples contaminated with debris from nuclear weapons. From measurements of europium-155, cesium-144, and strontium-90 in air filters collected between 1961 and 1966, the yield of europium-155 from weapons was estimated at 1400 atoms per 10(6) fissions, which is close to the yield of europium-155 from fast fission of uranium-238.