Isolation, characterization, and experimental infection of Streptococcus gallolyticus subspecies pasteurianus from commercial turkeys with acute septicemia: a pilot study

Streptococcus gallolyticus (SG) is a Gram-positive cocci found as commensal gut flora in animals and humans. SG has emerged as a cause of disease in young poults between 1 and 3 wk of age. SG is associated with septicemia resulting in acute mortality with no premonitory signs in turkeys. Three SG isolates were obtained from clinical field cases of acute septicemia of commercial turkeys and used in three independent experiments. In Experiment 1, embryos were inoculated 25 d of embryogenesis with varying concentrations of SG1, SG2, or SG3. In Experiment 2, day of hatch, poults were inoculated with varying concentrations using different routes of administration of SG1, SG2, or SG3. In Experiment 3, day of hatch, poults were inoculated with only isolate SG1 using different paths. Poults were randomly selected for necropsy on d 8 and d 15 and sampled to collect spleen, heart, and liver for SG on d 21, the remaining poults were necropsied and cultured. Samples were plated on Columbia nalidixic acid and colistin agar (CNA) (40°C, 18-24 h). Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) confirmed suspect colonies. Data were analyzed using the chi-square test of independence, testing all possible combinations to determine significance (P < 0.05). Weight data were subjected to ANOVA using JMP with significance (P < 0.05). No differences were found in BW or BWG on d 0, 8, 15, or 22. Splenomegaly, focal heart necrosis, and pericarditis were observed in all groups in experiments 1 through 3. In Experiment 3, only airsacculitis was observed in a negative control in separate isolation (P > 0.05). On d 21 of Experiment 3, increased (P < 0.05) recovery of SG from spleens were observed in co-housed negative controls, as well as poults challenged by oral gavage (P > 0.05 for d 7 and d 14). These results confirm numerous previous studies indicating that SG subsp. pasteurianus is a primary infectious microorganism that causes septicemia in young poults.

Evaluation of the impact of formaldehyde fumigation during the hatching phase on contamination in the hatch cabinet and early performance in broiler chickens

Commercial hatch cabinet environments promote replication of microorganisms. These pathogenic or apathogenic microorganisms may serve as pioneer colonizers of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) of poultry. Some of these pioneer colonizers, such as Escherichia coli and Enterococcus spp., are opportunistic pathogens that lead to reduced performance in commercial poultry. Effective hatchery sanitation is imperative to limit contamination of naïve neonatal chicks and poults. Formaldehyde fumigation has been traditionally used to reduce the pathogen load in commercial hatch cabinets. To investigate potential alternatives to formaldehyde fumigation, models to mimic the microbial bloom in a laboratory setting must be utilized. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the impact of a multispecies environmental challenge model (PM challenge) with and without formaldehyde fumigation during the hatching phase on early performance in broiler chicks. Three experiments were conducted to evaluate microbial contamination in the hatch cabinet environment (air samples, fluff samples), enteric colonization at day-of-hatch (DOH), and 7-day performance. In all experiments, significantly (P < 0.05) more gram-negative bacteria were recovered from the GIT at DOH in the PM challenge control group as compared to the nonchallenged control (NC) group and the formaldehyde-treated group (PM + F). There were no statistical differences in 7-day body weight gain or feed conversion ratio between the PM challenge control group, the NC group or the PM + F group. These data suggest this model could be utilized to evaluate alternatives to formaldehyde fumigation for controlling the microbial load during the hatching phase in a laboratory setting.

Development of an environmental contamination model to simulate the microbial bloom that occurs in commercial hatch cabinets

Microbial blooms that emerge in commercial hatch cabinets consist of apathogenic and pathogenic microorganisms, including Escherichia coli, Enterococcus faecalis, and Aspergillus fumigatus. Objectives of the present study included the development of a multipathogen contamination model to mimic commercial conditions and optimization of sampling methods to quantify bacterial or fungal presence within the hatch cabinet. The pathogen challenge mix (PM) was recreated from select bacterial or fungal isolates recovered from an egg homogenate (EH) derived from the contents of infertile eggs and late embryonic mortalities. Isolates selected for PM included Enterococcus faecalis (∼10⁸ CFU/egg), Staphylococcus aureus (∼10⁷ CFU/egg), Staphylococcus chromogenes (∼10⁷ CFU/egg), Aspergillus fumigatus (∼10⁶ spores/egg), and 2 Escherichia coli (∼10⁸ CFU/egg) isolates. Challenge (100 μL of PM or EH) was administered using a sterile loop to a 28 mm area on the blunt end of the eggshell at day 19 of embryogenesis (DOE). In 3 experiments, microbiological data were collected from environmental hatcher samples (open-agar plate method), fluff samples, postmortem whole-body chick rinse samples, and gastrointestinal tract (GIT) samples to evaluate select bacteria and fungi circulating within the hatch cabinet and colonization of GIT. Cumulative bacterial and fungal recovery from the PM hatching environment from DOE20 to hatch was higher than the nonchallenged group (NC) and EH group at ∼860 and ∼1,730 CFU, respectively. Bacterial recovery from GIT, fluff, and chick rinse samples were similar for the PM and EH group in Exp. 1. However, Aspergillus fumigatus recovery from fluff and chick rinse samples for the PM group was significantly (P < 0.001) higher than the NC and EH group. In Exp. 2 and 3, PM challenge significantly (P < 0.05) increased Gram-negative bacterial recovery from the GIT, fluff and chick rinse samples compared to both the NC and EH group. These data suggest this innovative multispecies environmental contamination model using PM could be utilized to evaluate strategies to mitigate microbial contamination in commercial hatch cabinets in a laboratory setting.

Enteric permeability and inflammation associated with day of hatch Enterobacteriaceae inoculation

Early exposure to Enterobacteriaceae may result in inappropriate microbial colonization of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, induce mild GI inflammation, alter immune system development, and predispose poultry to opportunistic infection. Four experiments were conducted to test Enterobacteriaceae isolates Escherichia coli LG strain (LG), E. coli Huff strain (Huff), Salmonella Enteritidis LB (SE) and Salmonella Typhimurium (ST) on ability to induce GI inflammation. All 4 experiments included a noninoculated control, and day of hatch (DOH) oral inoculation of LG, Huff, SE and ST in experiment 1, LG and SE in experiment 2, and LG, Huff, SE, and ST in experiment 3. Experiment 4 included LG, Huff, a noninoculated control (NIC), and Clostridium perfringens only (NCP) wherein birds received oral C. perfringens challenge on d15-16 to induce necrotic enteritis. Body weight was measured, yolk sacs and spleens were collected, and blood was obtained for serum fluorescein isothiocyanate dextran (FITC-d) recovery and alpha-1-acid glycoprotein (A1GP) concentrations. Samples were taken weekly through 2 wk of age in experiments 1 and 2, or 4 wk of age in experiments 3 and 4. Increased FITC-d recovery was observed for LG and SE on d13 in experiment 2 (P < 0.05), and C. perfringens only birds on d27 in experiment 4 (P < 0.05) as compared to noninoculated controls. Each experiment resulted in notable differences in A1GP serum concentrations over time, with fluctuations in A1GP patterns through d14 based on DOH inoculation (P < 0.05). Over time, A1GP was increased for DOH inoculated birds from d 22 to 29, the fourth wk of life, and d 2-29, the entire experiment, vs. noninoculated controls in experiment 3 (P < 0.05). Similarly, NCP and LGCP showed increased A1GP from d 20 to 27 and d 6 to 27, vs. NIC in experiment 4 (P < 0.05). In experiment 4, C. perfringens challenge resulted in earlier A1GP response in DOH inoculated birds, d 17-20, as compared to NCP birds, d 20-27 (P < 0.05). These results suggest early Enterobacteriaceae exposure may influence early inflammatory state in the GI tract and may also alter patterns of inflammation and responsiveness to pathogens.

Evaluation of day of hatch exposure to various Enterobacteriaceae on inducing gastrointestinal inflammation in chicks through two weeks of age

Inappropriate microbial colonization can induce gastrointestinal (GI) inflammation may predispose poultry to opportunistic infections and reduce growth performance. Four independent experiments were completed to test ability of select Enterobacteriaceae isolates to induce GI inflammation. Experiments 1 and 2 included a non-inoculated control (NC), and a low (L), medium (M), or high (H) day of hatch (DOH) oral inoculation level. In experiment 1, birds in L1, M1, and H1 received 102 to 104 CFU of a mixed dose of 2 species of Citrobacter and Salmonella Enteritidis LB (SE). In experiment 2, birds in L2, M2, and H2 received 103 to 105 CFU of E. coli LG (LG) and included NC. Body weight was recorded on d 0, 7, and 14, with blood collected for chicken serum alpha-1-acid glycoprotein (A1GP) measurements on d14. Neither experiment resulted in differences in BWG, however, A1GP was increased (P < 0.05) on d 14 when DOH inoculation dose 103 CFU/chick was used compared to NC. This observed increase in A1GP resulted in selection of 103 CFU/chick for DOH inoculation in experiments 3 and 4. Experiment 3 consisted of NC, E. coli Huff (Huff), and SE. On d 0, 7 and 15, BW was measured, with blood collected on d 15 for A1GP. Both d 15 A1GP and BWG from d 7 to 15 were reduced in inoculated chicks, Huff and SE, in experiment 3 (P < 0.05). Experiment 4 evaluated NC and LG with BW measured on d 0, 2, 7 and 14. Yolk sacs were evaluated for retention and bacterial enumeration, and blood for serum A1GP were collected on d 2 and 14. Experiment 4 resulted in no differences in yolk sac parameters or A1GP, whereas there was an increase in BWG for LG from d 0 to 14 (P < 0.05). When evaluated over time, serum A1GP increased between d 2 and d 14 by nearly 46% in LG, compared to negligible changes in NC (P = 0.111). Mild GI inflammation induced by early Enterobacteriaceae exposure may not drastically impact growth or inflammation parameters but may increase susceptibility to opportunistic infection necessitating further study of this model.

Development of a wild-type Escherichia coli environmental bloom model to evaluate alternatives to formaldehyde fumigation in broiler chicken hatch cabinets

Horizontal transmission of opportunistic Escherichia coli during hatch can have detrimental effects on early performance, particularly as pioneer colonizers. Commercially, formaldehyde is often applied in the United States to combat the bacterial bloom that occurs inside of the hatching environment. The purpose of these experiments was to develop a replicable E. coli horizontal challenge model to evaluate alternatives to formaldehyde sanitation applied to the hatching environment. In experiment 1, two trials were conducted for 2 wild-type (WT) E. coli isolates (isolate 1 [I1] or isolate 2 [I2]) to determine the appropriate in ovo challenge dose and day of embryogenesis (DOE) for challenge administration. In experiment 1 trial 1, the most appropriate inoculation dose and time point were determined to be 10² cfu/embryo on DOE 19. Experiment 1 trial 2 evaluated whether placement of seeder (direct-challenged) embryos with contact (indirect-challenged) embryos during hatch affected contact hatchability. Trial 2 showed no differences in hatchability between groups. A 7-day experiment (experiment 1 trial 2) was conducted to evaluate the effects of I1 or I2 on horizontal transmission, gram-negative bacterial (GNB) recovery from the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), and impact on BW gain (BWG). Compared with the negative control, seeder, and contact chicks challenged with I1 or I2, we observed increased (P < 0.05) GNB recovered from GIT on the day of hatch. There was a marked (P < 0.05) reduction in 7-day BWG between the I1 indirect-challenged group and the negative control group. To further validate the model, 2 7-day trials (experiment 2, experiment 3) were conducted to evaluate the effects of formaldehyde fumigation on coliform recovery from the hatching environment and on early performance using I1 for the challenge. Isolate 1 positive control hatchers had increased levels of circulating coliforms compared with the negative control and formaldehyde-treated hatchers, although there was no significant impact on performance induced by challenge or formaldehyde treatment in experiment 2 or experiment 3. These data provide a potential model for investigations related to horizontal transmission of WT E. coli at a low dose on DOE 19 to promote simulated commercially relevant bacterial blooms under laboratory conditions.

Evaluation of in ovo Bacillus spp. based probiotic administration on horizontal transmission of virulent Escherichia coli in neonatal broiler chickens

This study evaluated the effect of in ovo Bacillus spp. base probiotic (BBP) administration on hatchability, Gram-negative bacteria (GNB) recovery, performance, and microbiota composition in 2 independent trials using a virulent E. coli seeder challenge model. In each trial, one hundred and eighty 18-day-old embryos were allocated into 1 of 2 groups: Control and treated group (inoculated with 107 BBP). On day 19 of embryogenesis, seeder embryos (n = 18) were inoculated with 4.5 × 104E. coli/mL+272 μg/mL tetracycline and segregated into mesh hatching bags. Twelve chicks per group were euthanized at hatch and at day 7 to evaluate the gastrointestinal composition of total GNB or total aerobic pasteurized bacteria. Also, in trial 2, ceca content from five chickens at day 7 were collected to evaluate microbiota composition. Embryos inoculated with BBP showed a significant (P < 0.05) reduction in the total number of GNB at day-of-hatch (DOH) and day 7. Probiotic treatment increased BW at DOH and day 7, and BW gain (days 0 to 7) when compared with Control chickens. Proteobacteria phylum was significantly reduced, while the Firmicutes was significantly increased by the BBP as compared to the Control (P < 0.05). At family level, Enterobacteriaceae was significantly decreased, while the Lachnospiraceae was significantly elevated in the BBP as compared to the Control group (P < 0.05). The genus Oscillospira was significantly enriched in the BBP group, whereas the unidentified genus of family Enterobacteriaceae in the Control group (P < 0.05). The BBP group increased the bacterial species richness, although there was no significant difference between treatments (P > 0.05). Interestingly, beta diversity showed a significant difference in bacterial community structure between Control and BBP groups (P < 0.05). The results of the present study suggest that in ovo administration of a BBP can reduce the severity of virulent E. coli horizontal transmission and infection of broiler chickens during hatch. The reduction in the severity of the transmission and infection by the BPP might be achieved through alterations of microbiota composition and its community structure.

Development of a novel in ovo challenge model for virulent Escherichia coli strains

During the hatching process, chicks are exposed to opportunistic and/or pathogenic organisms, such as virulent or avirulent Escherichia coli. Virulent E. coli strains have not been feasible for induction of neonatal colibacillosis via in ovo challenge due to high embryonic mortality. In this manuscript, we describe the addition and co-administration of the bacteriostatic antibiotic tetracycline to a virulent E. coli challenge culture, improving hatchability and livability of seeder chicks while allowing robust horizontal transmission in the hatching cabinet to contact chicks. Experiment 1 consisted of 3 trials. Experiment 1, trial 1 was conducted to determine an effective ratio of E. coli challenge and tetracycline dose to be utilized in the seeder model. Trials 2 and 3 were conducted to evaluate the transmission of E. coli from seeder to contact chicks. Experiment 2 consisted of 3 independent 7-D trials where body weight gain (BWG), mortality, and selected enteric bacterial recovery were evaluated. In trials 1 to 3, significantly (P < 0.05) more Gram-negative bacteria were recovered from whole gut samples (GIT) vs. negative controls on day of hatch, from both seeder and contact chicks. At day 7 in trial 1, contact chicks had significantly (P < 0.05) more Gram-negative bacteria recovered from the GIT than the negative control, but not in trials 2 and 3. Presumptive lactic acid bacterial recovery was elevated in contact and seeder chicks compared to the negative control in all 3 trials. Contact challenge caused a significant (P < 0.05) reduction in BWG in 2 out of 3 trials at day 7, and there was a significant (P < 0.05) increase in mortality as compared to the negative controls in all trials. These data suggest that co-administration of a virulent E. coli strain with tetracycline allows for hatch of direct challenged chicks and effective horizontal transmission to contact chicks during the hatching process, as evidenced by reduced day 7 performance and altered selected enteric bacterial recovery.

Understanding and preventing deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism

Deep vein thrombosis and its complications, including pulmonary embolism, are major health problems in the United States, resulting in more than 260,000 hospital admissions and 100,000 deaths each year. Thirty percent of patients diagnosed with deep vein thrombosis will experience at least one recurrence of symptoms. To minimize patient morbidity and mortality and to contain health care costs, prevention, early diagnosis, and treatment of these conditions are essential. In this article the incidence pathophysiology risk factors, and clinical course of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism are discussed, as well as the clinician's role in prevention and treatment.

Colonic histoplasmosis in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Report of two cases

Colonic histoplasmosis is a rare entity. There have been four previous reported cases within the population of patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Because of the increasing incidence of HIV infection within regions where histoplasmosis is endemic, this condition may become more common. Gastrointestinal histoplasmosis has protean clinical manifestations, and symptoms are often nonspecific. Any patient with HIV infection who has unexplained GI symptoms should undergo evaluation for possible histoplasmosis. Aggressive long-term amphotericin B therapy has been effective in HIV patients with histoplasmosis. Resection or diversion of symptomatic colonic strictures caused by histoplasmosis may be necessary in addition to medical therapy.

PD 116,152, a novel phenazine antitumor antibiotic. Discovery, fermentation, culture characterization and biological activity

A novel phenazine antitumor antibiotic is described, produced by Streptomyces lomondensis subsp. galanosa NRRL 15738. The antibiotic is selectively active versus the bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (MIC less than 0.46 microgram/ml); the antitumor activity versus murine P388 leukemia is T/C 149.

Potent antitumor antibiotic complex: PD 114,759, PD 115,028, PD 119,707, and PD 119,193

Four novel antitumor antibiotics (PD 114,759, PD 115,028, PD 119,707 and PD 119,193) are produced as a complex by a new species of Actinomadura. The proposed name for the culture is Actinomadura verrucosospora subsp. veractimyces ATCC 39363. The antibiotics are extremely bioactive, with MIC values of less than 0.006 ng/ml against several bacteria and ID50 values of 0.003 approximately 0.107 ng/ml against L1210 leukemia cells in vitro. Antitumor activities vs. P388 leukemia in vivo were observed at doses of 0.313, 0.40, and 0.5 micrograms/kg (daily X 5) for PD 119,707, PD 115,028, and PD 114,759, respectively.

Novel antitumor antibiotics, CI-940 (PD 114,720) and PD 114,721. Taxonomy, fermentation and biological activity

The novel, broad-spectrum antitumor antibiotics, CI-940 (PD 114,720) and PD 114,721 are components of bioactive compounds produced by a novel actinomycete (ATCC 39366). The organism is unique in that whole cell analysis revealed LL-diaminopimelic acid and major amounts of arabinose. These new antibiotics exhibit potent antitumor activity in vitro and in vivo versus an array of tumors and possess strong antibacterial and antifungal activity. The above antibiotics are produced in 7,570-liter fermentors at yields of 5 approximately 8 micrograms/ml.

Fermentation by a new daunomycin-producing organism, Streptomyces insignis ATCC 31913

A new organism belonging to the grey series of streptomycetes is described which produces 55 to 75 micrograms of daunomycin per ml in a sparged fermentor. This organism is not taxonomically related to other known daunomycin producers. Its proposed name in Streptomyces insignis ATCC 31913.

Novel antitumor agents CI-920, PD 113,270 and PD 113,271. I. Taxonomy, fermentation and biological properties

CI-920 (PD 110,161) and two analogues (PD 113,270 and PD 113,271) are novel antitumor compounds produced by a new actinomycete characterized as Streptomyces pulveraceus subsp. fostreus ATCC 31906. The antitumor compounds are predominantly produced during the stationary (idiophase) growth phase of the organism. CI-920 is active versus the murine P388 lymphocytic and L1210 lymphoid leukemia with T/C values of 246 and 207, respectively. This compound has no significant antimicrobial activity.