Oral streptococci S. anginosus and S. mitis induce distinct morphological, inflammatory, and metabolic signatures in macrophages

Oral streptococci, key players in oral biofilm formation, are implicated in oral dysbiosis and various clinical conditions, including dental caries, gingivitis, periodontal disease, and oral cancer. Specifically, Streptococcus anginosus is associated with esophageal, gastric, and pharyngeal cancers, while Streptococcus mitis is linked to oral cancer. However, no study has investigated the mechanistic links between these Streptococcus species and cancer-related inflammatory responses. As an initial step, we probed the innate immune response triggered by S. anginosus and S. mitis in RAW264.7 macrophages. These bacteria exerted time- and dose-dependent effects on macrophage morphology without affecting cell viability. Compared with untreated macrophages, macrophages infected with S. anginosus exhibited a robust proinflammatory response characterized by significantly increased levels of inflammatory cytokines and mediators, including TNF, IL-6, IL-1β, NOS2, and COX2, accompanied by enhanced NF-κB activation. In contrast, S. mitis-infected macrophages failed to elicit a robust inflammatory response. Seahorse Xfe96 analysis revealed an increased extracellular acidification rate in macrophages infected with S. anginosus compared with S. mitis. At the 24-h time point, the presence of S. anginosus led to reduced extracellular itaconate, while S. mitis triggered increased itaconate levels, highlighting distinct metabolic profiles in macrophages during infection in contrast to aconitate decarboxylase expression observed at the 6-h time point. This initial investigation highlights how S. anginosus and S. mitis, two Gram-positive bacteria from the same genus, can prompt distinct immune responses and metabolic shifts in macrophages during infection.IMPORTANCEThe surge in head and neck cancer cases among individuals devoid of typical risk factors such as Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) infection and tobacco and alcohol use sparks an argumentative discussion around the emerging role of oral microbiota as a novel risk factor in oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). While substantial research has dissected the gut microbiome's influence on physiology, the oral microbiome, notably oral streptococci, has been underappreciated during mucosal immunopathogenesis. Streptococcus anginosus, a viridans streptococci group, has been linked to abscess formation and an elevated presence in esophageal cancer and OSCC. The current study aims to probe the innate immune response to S. anginosus compared with the early colonizer Streptococcus mitis as an important first step toward understanding the impact of distinct oral Streptococcus species on the host immune response, which is an understudied determinant of OSCC development and progression.

High-fat diet plus HNF1A variant promotes polyps by activating β-catenin in early-onset colorectal cancer

The incidence of early-onset colorectal cancer (EO-CRC) is rising and is poorly understood. Lifestyle factors and altered genetic background possibly contribute. Here, we performed targeted exon sequencing of archived leukocyte DNA from 158 EO-CRC participants, which identified a missense mutation at p.A98V within the proximal DNA binding domain of Hepatic Nuclear Factor 1 α (HNF1AA98V, rs1800574). The HNF1AA98V exhibited reduced DNA binding. To test function, the HNF1A variant was introduced into the mouse genome by CRISPR/Cas9, and the mice were placed on either a high-fat diet (HFD) or high-sugar diet (HSD). Only 1% of the HNF1A mutant mice developed polyps on normal chow; however, 19% and 3% developed polyps on the HFD and HSD, respectively. RNA-Seq revealed an increase in metabolic, immune, lipid biogenesis genes, and Wnt/β-catenin signaling components in the HNF1A mutant relative to the WT mice. Mouse polyps and colon cancers from participants carrying the HNF1AA98V variant exhibited reduced CDX2 and elevated β-catenin proteins. We further demonstrated decreased occupancy of HNF1AA98V at the Cdx2 locus and reduced Cdx2 promoter activity compared with WT HNF1A. Collectively, our study shows that the HNF1AA98V variant plus a HFD promotes the formation of colonic polyps by activating β-catenin via decreasing Cdx2 expression.

Genetically engineered human pituitary corticotroph tumor organoids exhibit divergent responses to glucocorticoid receptor modulators

Cushing's disease (CD) is a serious endocrine disorder attributed to an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-secreting pituitary neuroendocrine tumor (PitNET) that that subsequently leads to chronic hypercortisolemia. PitNET regression has been reported following treatment with the investigational selective glucocorticoid receptor (GR) modulator relacorilant, but the mechanisms behind that effect remain unknown. Human PitNET organoid models were generated from induced human pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) or fresh tissue obtained from CD patient PitNETs (hPITOs). Genetically engineered iPSC derived organoids were used to model the development of corticotroph PitNETs expressing USP48 (iPSCUSP48) or USP8 (iPSCUSP8) somatic mutations. Organoids were treated with the GR antagonist mifepristone or the GR modulator relacorilant with or without somatostatin receptor (SSTR) agonists pasireotide or octreotide. In iPSCUSP48 and iPSCUSP8 cultures, mifepristone induced a predominant expression of SSTR2 with a concomitant increase in ACTH secretion and tumor cell proliferation. Relacorilant predominantly induced SSTR5 expression and tumor cell apoptosis with minimal ACTH induction. Hedgehog signaling mediated the induction of SSTR2 and SSTR5 in response to mifepristone and relacorilant. Relacorilant sensitized PitNET organoid responsiveness to pasireotide. Therefore, our study identified the potential therapeutic use of relacorilant in combination with somatostatin analogs and demonstrated the advantages of relacorilant over mifepristone, supporting its further development for use in the treatment of Cushing's disease patients.

SGRN: A Cas12a-driven Synthetic Gene Regulatory Network System

Gene regulatory networks, which control gene expression patterns in development and in response to stimuli, use regulatory logic modules to coordinate inputs and outputs. One example of a regulatory logic module is the gene regulatory cascade (GRC), where a series of transcription factor genes turn on in order. Synthetic biologists have derived artificial systems that encode regulatory rules, including GRCs. Furthermore, the development of single-cell approaches has enabled the discovery of gene regulatory modules in a variety of experimental settings. However, the tools available for validating these observations remain limited. Based on a synthetic GRC using DNA cutting-defective Cas9 (dCas9), we designed and implemented an alternative synthetic GRC utilizing DNA cutting-defective Cas12a (dCas12a). Comparing the ability of these two systems to express a fluorescent reporter, the dCas9 system was initially more active, while the dCas12a system was more streamlined. Investigating the influence of individual components of the systems identified nuclear localization as a major driver of differences in activity. Improving nuclear localization for the dCas12a system resulted in 1.5-fold more reporter-positive cells and a 15-fold increase in reporter intensity relative to the dCas9 system. We call this optimized system the "Synthetic Gene Regulatory Network" (SGRN, pronounced "sojourn").

FOXO nuclear shuttling dynamics are stimulus-dependent and correspond with cell fate

FOXO transcription factors are regulators of cellular homeostasis linked to increased lifespan and tumor suppression. FOXOs are activated by diverse cell stresses including serum starvation and oxidative stress. FOXO activity is regulated through posttranslational modifications that control shuttling of FOXO proteins to the nucleus. In the nucleus, FOXOs up-regulate genes in multiple, often conflicting pathways, including cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis. How cells control FOXO activity to ensure the proper response for a given stress is an open question. Using quantitative immunofluorescence and live-cell imaging, we found that the dynamics of FOXO nuclear shuttling is stimulus-dependent and corresponds with cell fate. H2O2 treatment leads to an all-or-none response where some cells show no nuclear FOXO accumulation, while other cells show a strong nuclear FOXO signal. The time that FOXO remains in the nucleus increases with the dose and is linked with cell death. In contrast, serum starvation causes low-amplitude pulses of nuclear FOXO and predominantly results in cell-cycle arrest. The accumulation of FOXO in the nucleus is linked with low AKT activity for both H2O2 and serum starvation. Our findings suggest the dynamics of FOXO nuclear shuttling is one way in which the FOXO pathway dictates different cellular outcomes.

USP47 deubiquitylates Groucho/TLE to promote Wnt-β-catenin signaling

The Wnt-β-catenin signal transduction pathway is essential for embryonic development and adult tissue homeostasis. Wnt signaling converts TCF from a transcriptional repressor to an activator in a process facilitated by the E3 ligase XIAP. XIAP-mediated monoubiquitylation of the transcriptional corepressor Groucho (also known as TLE) decreases its affinity for TCF, thereby allowing the transcriptional coactivator β-catenin to displace it on TCF. Through a genome-scale screen in cultured Drosophila melanogaster cells, we identified the deubiquitylase USP47 as a positive regulator of Wnt signaling. We found that USP47 was required for Wnt signaling during Drosophila and Xenopus laevis development, as well as in human cells, indicating evolutionary conservation. In human cells, knockdown of USP47 inhibited Wnt reporter activity, and USP47 acted downstream of the β-catenin destruction complex. USP47 interacted with TLE3 and XIAP but did not alter their amounts; however, knockdown of USP47 enhanced XIAP-mediated ubiquitylation of TLE3. USP47 inhibited ubiquitylation of TLE3 by XIAP in vitro in a dose-dependent manner, suggesting that USP47 is the deubiquitylase that counteracts the E3 ligase activity of XIAP on TLE. Our data suggest a mechanism by which regulated ubiquitylation and deubiquitylation of TLE enhance the ability of β-catenin to cycle on and off TCF, thereby helping to ensure that the expression of Wnt target genes continues only as long as the upstream signal is present.

Development of Human Pituitary Neuroendocrine Tumor Organoids to Facilitate Effective Targeted Treatments of Cushing's Disease

(1) Background: Cushing's disease (CD) is a serious endocrine disorder caused by an adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)-secreting pituitary neuroendocrine tumor (PitNET) that stimulates the adrenal glands to overproduce cortisol. Chronic exposure to excess cortisol has detrimental effects on health, including increased stroke rates, diabetes, obesity, cognitive impairment, anxiety, depression, and death. The first-line treatment for CD is pituitary surgery. Current surgical remission rates reported in only 56% of patients depending on several criteria. The lack of specificity, poor tolerability, and low efficacy of the subsequent second-line medical therapies make CD a medical therapeutic challenge. One major limitation that hinders the development of specific medical therapies is the lack of relevant human model systems that recapitulate the cellular composition of PitNET microenvironment. (2) Methods: human pituitary tumor tissue was harvested during transsphenoidal surgery from CD patients to generate organoids (hPITOs). (3) Results: hPITOs generated from corticotroph, lactotroph, gonadotroph, and somatotroph tumors exhibited morphological diversity among the organoid lines between individual patients and amongst subtypes. The similarity in cell lineages between the organoid line and the patient's tumor was validated by comparing the neuropathology report to the expression pattern of PitNET specific markers, using spectral flow cytometry and exome sequencing. A high-throughput drug screen demonstrated patient-specific drug responses of hPITOs amongst each tumor subtype. Generation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from a CD patient carrying germline mutation CDH23 exhibited dysregulated cell lineage commitment. (4) Conclusions: The human pituitary neuroendocrine tumor organoids represent a novel approach in how we model complex pathologies in CD patients, which will enable effective personalized medicine for these patients.

Live-cell imaging in human colonic monolayers reveals ERK waves limit the stem cell compartment to maintain epithelial homeostasis

The establishment and maintenance of different cellular compartments in tissues is a universal requirement across all metazoans. Maintaining the correct ratio of cell types in time and space allows tissues to form patterned compartments and perform complex functions. Patterning is especially evident in the human colon, where tissue homeostasis is maintained by stem cells in crypt structures that balance proliferation and differentiation. Here, we developed a human 2D patient derived organoid (PDO) screening platform to study tissue patterning and kinase pathway dynamics in single cells. Using this system, we discovered that waves of ERK signaling induced by apoptotic cells play a critical role in maintaining tissue patterning and homeostasis. If ERK is activated acutely across all cells instead of in wavelike patterns, then tissue patterning and stem cells are lost. Conversely, if ERK activity is inhibited, then stem cells become unrestricted and expand dramatically. This work demonstrates that the colonic epithelium requires coordinated ERK signaling dynamics to maintain patterning and tissue homeostasis. Our work reveals how ERK can antagonize stem cells while supporting cell replacement and the function of the gut.

Abstract 3087: The identification and characterization of FOLFOX chemotherapy resistant cell lineages in colorectal cancer organoids

Resistance to chemotherapy drugs is a well-documented issue inhibiting the treatment of a wide variety of cancers. Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common neoplasm worldwide and has the third highest mortality rate. However, the longtime gold-standard FOLFOX chemotherapy regimen, consisting of 5-FU and Oxaliplatin, results in only 70% survival rates in Stage 3 CRC patients, worse in Stage 4. More recent targeted therapies have marginally improved on this number, but the fact remains that CRC represents a highly heterogeneous neoplasm and resistance to standard chemotherapeutic regimens poses a significant barrier in treating this devastating disease.

There is an immediate need to better understand how this resistance arises. We hypothesize that a small number of cells with high phenotypic plasticity (HPP) are able to remain dormant during the initial chemotherapy treatment then reenter the cell cycle to cause recurrence and metastasis months or even years after treatment has concluded. Patient-derived organoids (PDOs) are a recently developed ex vivo model that allows for the study and extensive characterization of such HPP cell populations that may be found in patient tumors. We are developing and expanding various PDO populations to examine them genotypically and phenotypically on the single-cell level through RNA sequencing and high throughput imaging, respectively. By identifying these HPP cell populations, we then discover drugs that prevent the development of drug-resistant subpopulations. In the long term, we use our tumor heterogeneity profile to develop models that predict the responsiveness of tumors, including their drug-resistant HPP subpopulations, to well-documented and clinically used oncology drugs, streamlining treatment and improving survival outcomes.

Citation Format: Julia M. Morris, Curtis A. Thorne. The identification and characterization of FOLFOX chemotherapy resistant cell lineages in colorectal cancer organoids [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2022; 2022 Apr 8-13. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2022;82(12_Suppl):Abstract nr 3087.

Abstract 171: ERK dynamics are essential for colon tissue patterning

Maintaining the correct ratio of cellular niches in space and time allows tissues to perform their complex functions and create patterns. This maintenance of tissue patterning is often dysregulated during cancer development. In order to study tissue patterning, temporal and spatial resolution of communication between single cells is required. To explore how this complex process is controlled, we developed a patient-derived organoid screening platform to study both tissue patterning and kinase pathway dynamics in single cells across hundreds of conditions. Unlike normal and polyp-derived organoids, tumor organoids displayed a lack of patterning reminiscent of in vivo dysplasia. Using this system, we discovered that waves of Erk signaling induced by apoptotic cells are critical for maintaining tissue patterning in human colonic organoids. Using a small molecule-based screen, we discovered novel kinases which limit Erk activation across tissues and help maintain patterning. Perturbation of Erk restricting kinases results in dysfunctional colonic wound repair and re-establishment of tissue patterns in vivo.

Citation Format: Kelvin W. Pond, Jayati Chakrabarti, Curtis A. Thorne, Andrew L. Paek. ERK dynamics are essential for colon tissue patterning [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2022; 2022 Apr 8-13. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2022;82(12_Suppl):Abstract nr 171.

Abstract 152: Discovery and characterization of GSK3 allosteric activators

The intestinal epithelium undergoes constant regeneration and is tightly regulated. Disruption of its homeostasis can result in the development of colorectal cancer (CRC). Glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3) is a kinase that plays a central role in multiple signaling pathways, including cellular proliferation, where it inhibits the activity of its substrates. GSK3 dynamics can be described as a multiple input multiple output system. Numerous upstream growth factors can regulate and thus inhibit GSK3 from acting on its many substrates. Mutations in these growth signaling pathways (e.g., Wnt and KRAS) have been well established to have a role in CRC progression. Therefore, aberrantly activated signaling due to these proteins are presumed to result in the constitutive inhibition of GSK3 activity in CRC, thus making it an ideal therapeutic target. The aim of this study is to discover an allosteric GSK3 small molecule activator that can restore GSK3 kinase activity within CRC. Method: We screened 50,000 small molecule compounds using a luciferase-based in-vitro kinase assay. We are further confirming our top hits using both chemical and cell-based assays. For the cell-based assays, we test the compounds in human colonic epithelial cells (HCEC) and its three isogenic cell lines, which mimic CRC progression, and monitor changes in GSK3 kinase activity indirectly, via changes in its substrate protein levels, and directly via a live-cell GSK3 specific reporter. In addition, the top hits are also tested in both normal colon and CRC organoids. Results: Prior to running our large screen, we performed various optimization steps to determine the ideal condition for our screening assay. Our screening assay scored a Z-Score of 0.5 and higher, which indicated that it was a high-quality screening assay. Additionally, we have developed two cell-based orthogonal HTS assays. One using immunofluorescence and single-cell quantification of 24 GSK3 substrates from various pathways in our cell lines. Second, we engineered a GSK3 live-cell reporter and expressed it in the HCEC cells and three isogenic cell lines and organoid models. Impact: There is a need for advancements in preventative or therapeutic targets against CRC. Research indicates that suppression of GSK3 enzymatic activity decreases sensitivity to certain chemotherapeutic and targeted therapies. Therefore, restoring GSK3 enzymatic activity in CRC may re-sensitize tumors to other targeted therapies and establish GSK3 as a potential therapeutic target.

Citation Format: Reeba P. Varghese, Curtis A. Thorne. Discovery and characterization of GSK3 allosteric activators [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the American Association for Cancer Research Annual Meeting 2022; 2022 Apr 8-13. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2022;82(12_Suppl):Abstract nr 152.

Convergent antibody responses to the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in convalescent and vaccinated individuals

Unrelated individuals can produce genetically similar clones of antibodies, known as public clonotypes, which have been seen in responses to different infectious diseases, as well as healthy individuals. Here we identify 37 public clonotypes in memory B cells from convalescent survivors of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection or in plasmablasts from an individual after vaccination with mRNA-encoded spike protein. We identify 29 public clonotypes, including clones recognizing the receptor-binding domain (RBD) in the spike protein S1 subunit (including a neutralizing, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 [ACE2]-blocking clone that protects in vivo) and others recognizing non-RBD epitopes that bind the S2 domain. Germline-revertant forms of some public clonotypes bind efficiently to spike protein, suggesting these common germline-encoded antibodies are preconfigured for avid recognition. Identification of large numbers of public clonotypes provides insight into the molecular basis of efficacy of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and sheds light on the immune pressures driving the selection of common viral escape mutants.

Paradoxical effects of cigarette smoke and COPD on SARS-CoV-2 infection and disease

BACKGROUND

How cigarette smoke (CS) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) affect severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV2) infection and severity is controversial. We investigated the effects of COPD and CS on the expression of SARS-CoV-2 entry receptor ACE2 in vivo in COPD patients and controls and in CS-exposed mice, and the effects of CS on SARS-CoV-2 infection in human bronchial epithelial cells in vitro.

METHODS

We quantified: (1) pulmonary ACE2 protein levels by immunostaining and ELISA, and both ACE2 and/or TMPRSS2 mRNA levels by RT-qPCR in two independent human cohorts; and (2) pulmonary ACE2 protein levels by immunostaining and ELISA in C57BL/6 WT mice exposed to air or CS for up to 6 months. The effects of CS exposure on SARS-CoV-2 infection were evaluated after in vitro infection of Calu-3 cells and differentiated human bronchial epithelial cells (HBECs), respectively.

RESULTS

ACE2 protein and mRNA levels were decreased in peripheral airways from COPD patients versus controls but similar in central airways. Mice exposed to CS had decreased ACE2 protein levels in their bronchial and alveolar epithelia versus air-exposed mice. CS treatment decreased viral replication in Calu-3 cells, as determined by immunofluorescence staining for replicative double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) and western blot for viral N protein. Acute CS exposure decreased in vitro SARS-CoV-2 replication in HBECs, as determined by plaque assay and RT-qPCR.

CONCLUSIONS

ACE2 levels were decreased in both bronchial and alveolar epithelial cells from COPD patients versus controls, and from CS-exposed versus air-exposed mice. CS-pre-exposure potently inhibited SARS-CoV-2 replication in vitro. These findings urge to investigate further the controversial effects of CS and COPD on SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Convergent antibody responses to the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in convalescent and vaccinated individuals

Unrelated individuals can produce genetically similar clones of antibodies, known as public clonotypes, which have been seen in responses to different infectious diseases as well as healthy individuals. Here we identify 37 public clonotypes in memory B cells from convalescent survivors of SARS-CoV-2 infection or in plasmablasts from an individual after vaccination with mRNA-encoded spike protein. We identified 29 public clonotypes, including clones recognizing the receptor-binding domain (RBD) in the spike protein S1 subunit (including a neutralizing, ACE2-blocking clone that protects in vivo ), and others recognizing non-RBD epitopes that bound the heptad repeat 1 region of the S2 domain. Germline-revertant forms of some public clonotypes bound efficiently to spike protein, suggesting these common germline-encoded antibodies are preconfigured for avid recognition. Identification of large numbers of public clonotypes provides insight into the molecular basis of efficacy of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines and sheds light on the immune pressures driving the selection of common viral escape mutants.

Novel Compounds Targeting Neuropilin Receptor 1 with Potential To Interfere with SARS-CoV-2 Virus Entry

Neuropilin-1 (NRP-1) is a multifunctional transmembrane receptor for ligands that affect developmental axonal growth and angiogenesis. In addition to a role in cancer, NRP-1 is a reported entry point for several viruses, including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causal agent of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The furin cleavage product of SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein takes advantage of the vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) binding site on NRP-1 which accommodates a polybasic stretch ending in a C-terminal arginine. This site has long been a focus of drug discovery efforts for cancer therapeutics. We recently showed that interruption of the VEGF-A/NRP-1 signaling pathway ameliorates neuropathic pain and hypothesize that interference of this pathway by SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein interferes with pain signaling. Here, we report confirmed hits from a small molecule and natural product screen of nearly 0.5 million compounds targeting the VEGF-A binding site on NRP-1. We identified nine chemical series with lead- or drug-like physicochemical properties. Using ELISA, we demonstrate that six compounds disrupt VEGF-A-NRP-1 binding more effectively than EG00229, a known NRP-1 inhibitor. Secondary validation in cells revealed that all tested compounds inhibited VEGF-A triggered VEGFR2 phosphorylation. Further, two compounds displayed robust inhibition of a recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus protein that utilizes the SARS-CoV-2 Spike for entry and fusion. These compounds represent a first step in a renewed effort to develop small molecule inhibitors of the VEGF-A/NRP-1 signaling for the treatment of neuropathic pain and cancer with the added potential of inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 virus entry.

Paradoxical effects of cigarette smoke and COPD on SARS-CoV2 infection and disease

Introduction

How cigarette smoke (CS) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) affect severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and severity is controversial. We investigated the protein and mRNA expression of SARS-CoV-2 entry receptor ACE2 and proteinase TMPRSS2 in lungs from COPD patients and controls, and lung tissue from mice exposed acutely and chronically to CS. Also, we investigated the effects of CS exposure on SARS-CoV-2 infection in human bronchial epithelial cells.

Methods

In Cohort 1, ACE2-positive cells were quantified by immunostaining in FFPE sections from both central and peripheral airways. In Cohort 2, we quantified pulmonary ACE2 protein levels by immunostaining and ELISA, and both ACE2 and TMPRSS2 mRNA levels by RT-qPCR. In C57BL/6 WT mice exposed to air or CS for up to 6 months, pulmonary ACE2 protein levels were quantified by triple immunofluorescence staining and ELISA. The effects of CS exposure on SARS-CoV-2 infection were evaluated after 72hr in vitro infection of Calu-3 cells. After SARS-CoV-2 infection, the cells were fixed for IF staining with dsRNA-specific J2 monoclonal Ab, and cell lysates were harvested for WB of viral nucleocapsid (N) protein. Supernatants (SN) and cytoplasmic lysates were obtained to measure ACE2 levels by ELISA.

Results

In both human cohorts, ACE2 protein and mRNA levels were decreased in peripheral airways from COPD patients versus both smoker and NS controls, but similar in central airways. TMPRSS2 levels were similar across groups. Mice exposed to CS had decreased ACE2 protein levels in their bronchial and alveolar epithelia versus air-exposed mice exposed to 3 and 6 months of CS. In Calu3 cells in vitro, CS-treatment abrogated infection to levels below the limit of detection. Similar results were seen with WB for viral N protein, showing peak viral protein synthesis at 72hr.

Conclusions

ACE2 levels were decreased in both bronchial and alveolar epithelial cells from uninfected COPD patients versus controls, and from CS-exposed versus air-exposed mice. CS-pre-treatment did not affect ACE2 levels but potently inhibited SARS-CoV-2 replication in this in vitro model. These findings urge to further investigate the controversial effects of CS and COPD on SARS-CoV2 infection.

In silico identification and validation of inhibitors of the interaction between neuropilin receptor 1 and SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein

Neuropilin-1 (NRP-1) is a multifunctional transmembrane receptor for ligands that affect developmental axonal growth and angiogenesis. In addition to a role in cancer, NRP-1 is a reported entry point for several viruses, including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causal agent of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The furin cleavage product of SARS-CoV-2 Spike protein takes advantage of the vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) binding site on NRP-1 which accommodates a polybasic stretch ending in a C-terminal arginine. This site has long been a focus of drug discovery efforts for cancer therapeutics. We recently showed that interruption of the VEGF-A/NRP-1 signaling pathway ameliorates neuropathic pain and hypothesize that interference of this pathway by SARS-CoV-2 spike protein interferes with pain signaling. Here, we report hits from a small molecule and natural product screen of nearly 0.5 million compounds targeting the VEGF-A binding site on NRP-1. We identified nine chemical series with lead- or drug-like physico-chemical properties. Using an ELISA, we demonstrate that six compounds disrupt VEGF-A-NRP-1 binding more effectively than EG00229, a known NRP-1 inhibitor. Secondary validation in cells revealed that almost all tested compounds inhibited VEGF-A triggered VEGFR2 phosphorylation. Two compounds displayed robust inhibition of a recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus protein that utilizes the SARS-CoV-2 Spike for entry and fusion. These compounds represent a first step in a renewed effort to develop small molecule inhibitors of the VEGF-A/NRP-1 signaling for the treatment of neuropathic pain and cancer with the added potential of inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 virus entry.

Generation and Quantitative Imaging of Enteroid Monolayers

The intestinal epithelium is a single layer of cells that plays a critical role in digestion, absorbs nutrients from food, and coordinates the delicate interplay between microbes in the gut lumen and the immune system. Epithelial homeostasis is crucial for maintaining health; disruption of homeostasis results in disorders including inflammatory bowel disease and cancer. The advent of 3D intestinal epithelial organoids has greatly advanced our understanding of the molecular underpinnings of epithelial homeostasis and disease. Recently, we developed an enteroid monolayer (2D) culture system that recapitulates important features of 3D organoids and the in vivo intestinal epithelium such as tissue renewal, representation of diverse epithelial cell types, self-organization, and apical-basolateral polarization. Enteroid monolayers are cultured in microtiter plates, enabling high-throughput experiments. Furthermore, their 2D nature makes it easier to distinguish individual cells by fluorescent microscopy, enabling quantitative analysis of single cell behaviors within the epithelial tissue.Here we describe experimental methods for generating enteroid monolayers and computational methods for analyzing immunofluorescence images of enteroid monolayers. We outline experimental methods for generating enteroid monolayers from freshly isolated intestinal crypts, frozen intestinal crypts, and 3D organoids. Fresh crypts are easily obtained from murine or human intestinal samples, and the ability to derive enteroid monolayers from both frozen crypts and 3D organoids enables genetic modification and/or biobanking of patient samples for future studies. We outline computational methods for identifying distinct epithelial cell types (goblet, stem, EdU+) in immunofluorescence images of enteroid monolayers and, importantly, individual nuclei, enabling truly single cell measurements of epithelial cell behaviors to be made. Taken together, these methods will enable detailed studies of epithelial homeostasis and intestinal disease.

Enteroid Monolayers Reveal an Autonomous WNT and BMP Circuit Controlling Intestinal Epithelial Growth and Organization

The intestinal epithelium maintains a remarkable balance between proliferation and differentiation despite rapid cellular turnover. A central challenge is to elucidate mechanisms required for robust control of tissue renewal. Opposing WNT and BMP signaling is essential in establishing epithelial homeostasis. However, it has been difficult to disentangle contributions from multiple sources of morphogen signals in the tissue. Here, to dissect epithelial-autonomous morphogenic signaling circuits, we developed an enteroid monolayer culture system that recapitulates four key properties of the intestinal epithelium, namely the ability to maintain proliferative and differentiated zones, self-renew, polarize, and generate major intestinal cell types. We systematically perturb intrinsic and extrinsic sources of WNT and BMP signals to reveal a core morphogenic circuit that controls proliferation, tissue organization, and cell fate. Our work demonstrates the ability of intestinal epithelium, even in the absence of 3D tissue architecture, to control its own growth and organization through morphogen-mediated feedback.

FGF21 Is an Exocrine Pancreas Secretagogue

The metabolic stress hormone FGF21 is highly expressed in exocrine pancreas, where its levels are increased by refeeding and chemically induced pancreatitis. However, its function in the exocrine pancreas remains unknown. Here, we show that FGF21 stimulates digestive enzyme secretion from pancreatic acinar cells through an autocrine/paracrine mechanism that requires signaling through a tyrosine kinase receptor complex composed of an FGF receptor and β-Klotho. Mice lacking FGF21 accumulate zymogen granules and are susceptible to pancreatic ER stress, an effect that is reversed by administration of recombinant FGF21. Mice carrying an acinar cell-specific deletion of β-Klotho also accumulate zymogen granules but are refractory to FGF21-stimulated secretion. Like the classical post-prandial secretagogue, cholecystokinin (CCK), FGF21 triggers intracellular calcium release via PLC-IP₃R signaling. However, unlike CCK, FGF21 does not induce protein synthesis, thereby preventing protein accumulation. Thus, pancreatic FGF21 is a digestive enzyme secretagogue whose physiologic function is to maintain acinar cell proteostasis.

Examining Crosstalk among Transforming Growth Factor β, Bone Morphogenetic Protein, and Wnt Pathways

The integration of morphogenic signals by cells is not well understood. A growing body of literature suggests increasingly complex coupling among classically defined pathways. Given this apparent complexity, it is difficult to predict where, when, or even whether crosstalk occurs. Here, we investigated pairs of morphogenic pathways, previously reported to have multiple points of crosstalk, which either do not share (TGFβ and Wnt/β-catenin) or share (TGFβ and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP)) core signaling components. Crosstalk was measured by the ability of one morphogenic pathway to cross-activate core transcription factors and/or target genes of another morphogenic pathway. In contrast to previous studies, we found a surprising absence of crosstalk between TGFβ and Wnt/β-catenin. Further, we did not observe expected cross-pathway inhibition in between TGFβ and BMP, despite the fact that both use (or could compete) for the shared component SMAD4. Critical to our assays was a separation of timescales, which helped separate crosstalk due to initial signal transduction from subsequent post-transcriptional feedback events. Our study revealed fewer (and different) inter-morphogenic pathway crosstalk connections than expected; even pathways that share components can be insulated from one another.

A Kinase Divided

In this issue of Cancer Cell, Herrero and colleagues identify an anti-tumorigenic small molecule that blocks ERK dimerization, but neither its catalytic activity nor its phosphorylation by MEK. These findings demonstrate that targeting protein dimerization could be a therapeutic avenue for inhibiting kinase signaling pathways associated with lower drug resistance.

GSK-3 modulates cellular responses to a broad spectrum of kinase inhibitors

A fundamental challenge in treating disease is identifying molecular states that affect cellular responses to drugs. Here, we focus on glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK-3), a key regulator for many of the hallmark behaviors of cancer cells. We alter GSK-3 activity in colon epithelial cells to test its role in modulating drug response. We find that GSK-3 activity broadly affects the cellular sensitivities to a panel of oncology drugs and kinase inhibitors. Specifically, inhibition of GSK-3 activity can strongly desensitize or sensitize cells to kinase inhibitors (for example, mTOR or PLK1 inhibitors, respectively). Additionally, colorectal cancer cell lines, in which GSK-3 function is commonly suppressed, are resistant to mTOR inhibitors and yet highly sensitive to PLK1 inhibitors, and this is further exacerbated by additional GSK-3 inhibition. Finally, by conducting a kinome-wide RNAi screen, we find that GSK-3 modulates the cell proliferative phenotype of a large fraction (∼35%) of the kinome, which includes ∼50% of current, clinically relevant kinase-targeted drugs. Our results highlight an underappreciated interplay of GSK-3 with therapeutically important kinases and suggest strategies for identifying disease-specific molecular profiles that can guide optimal selection of drug treatment.

Selective small molecule targeting β-catenin function discovered by in vivo chemical genetic screen

The canonical Wnt signaling pathway, mediated by the transcription factor β-catenin, plays critical roles in embryonic development and represents an important therapeutic target. In a zebrafish-based in vivo screen for small molecules that specifically perturb embryonic dorsoventral patterning, we discovered a compound named windorphen that selectively blocks the Wnt signal required for ventral development. Windorphen exhibits remarkable specificity toward β-catenin-1 function, indicating that the two β-catenin isoforms found in zebrafish are not functionally redundant. We show that windorphen is a selective inhibitor of p300 histone acetyltransferase, a coactivator that associates with β-catenin. Finally, windorphen robustly and selectively kills cancer cells that harbor Wnt-activating mutations, supporting the therapeutic potential of this Wnt inhibitor class.

The way Wnt works: components and mechanism

The canonical Wnt/β-catenin pathway is an ancient and evolutionarily conserved signaling pathway that is required for the proper development of all metazoans, from the basal demosponge Amphimedon queenslandica to humans. Misregulation of Wnt signaling is implicated in many human diseases, making this pathway an intense area of research in industry as well as academia. In this review, we explore our current understanding of the molecular steps involved in the transduction of a Wnt signal. We will focus on how the critical Wnt pathway component, β-catenin, is in a "futile cycle" of constant synthesis and degradation and how this cycle is disrupted upon pathway activation. We describe the role of the Wnt pathway in major human cancers and in the control of stem cell self-renewal in the developing organism and in adults. Finally, we describe well-accepted criteria that have been proposed as evidence for the involvement of a molecule in regulating the canonical Wnt pathway.

A biochemical screen for identification of small-molecule regulators of the Wnt pathway using Xenopus egg extracts

Misregulation of the Wnt pathway has been shown to be responsible for a variety of human diseases, most notably cancers. Screens for inhibitors of this pathway have been performed almost exclusively using cultured mammalian cells or with purified proteins. We have previously developed a biochemical assay using Xenopus egg extracts to recapitulate key cytoplasmic events in the Wnt pathway. Using this biochemical system, we show that a recombinant form of the Wnt coreceptor, LRP6, regulates the stability of two key components of the Wnt pathway (β-catenin and Axin) in opposing fashion. We have now fused β-catenin and Axin to firefly and Renilla luciferase, respectively, and demonstrate that the fusion proteins behave similarly as their wild-type counterparts. Using this dual luciferase readout, we adapted the Xenopus extracts system for high-throughput screening. Results from these screens demonstrate signal distribution curves that reflect the complexity of the library screened. Of several compounds identified as cytoplasmic modulators of the Wnt pathway, one was further validated as a bona fide inhibitor of the Wnt pathway in cultured mammalian cells and Xenopus embryos. We show that other embryonic pathways may be amendable to screening for inhibitors/modulators in Xenopus egg extracts.

Pyrvinium, a potent small molecule Wnt inhibitor, promotes wound repair and post-MI cardiac remodeling

Wnt signaling plays an important role in developmental and stem cell biology. To test the hypothesis that temporary inhibition of Wnt signaling will enhance granulation tissue and promote angiogenesis in tissue repair, we employed a recently characterized small molecule Wnt inhibitor. Pyrvinium is an FDA-approved drug that we identified as a Wnt inhibitor in a chemical screen for small molecules that stabilize β-catenin and inhibit Axin degradation. Our subsequent characterization of pyrvinium has revealed that its critical cellular target in the Wnt pathway is Casein Kinase 1α. Daily administration of pyrvinium directly into polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) sponges implanted subcutaneously in mice generated better organized and vascularized granulation tissue; this compound also increased the proliferative index of the tissue within the sponges. To evaluate its effect in myocardial repair, we induced a myocardial infarction (MI) by coronary artery ligation and administered a single intramyocardial dose of pyrvinium. Mice were evaluated by echocardiography at 7 and 30 days post-MI and treatment; post mortem hearts were evaluated by histology at 30 days. Pyrvinium reduced adverse cardiac remodeling demonstrated by decreased left ventricular internal diameter in diastole (LVIDD) as compared to a control compound. Increased Ki-67+ cells were observed in peri-infarct and distal myocardium of pyrvinium-treated animals. These results need to be further followed-up to determine if therapeutic inhibition of canonical Wnt may avert adverse remodeling after ischemic injury and its impact on myocardial repair and regeneration.

sFRP2 suppression of bone morphogenic protein (BMP) and Wnt signaling mediates mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) self-renewal promoting engraftment and myocardial repair

Transplantation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) is a promising therapy for ischemic injury; however, inadequate survival of implanted cells in host tissue is a substantial impediment in the progress of cellular therapy. Secreted Frizzled-related protein 2 (sFRP2) has recently been highlighted as a key mediator of MSC-driven myocardial and wound repair. Notably, sFRP2 mediates significant enhancement of MSC engraftment in vivo. We hypothesized that sFRP2 improves MSC engraftment by modulating self-renewal through increasing stem cell survival and by inhibiting differentiation. In previous studies we demonstrated that sFRP2-expressing MSCs exhibited an increased proliferation rate. In the current study, we show that sFRP2 also decreased MSC apoptosis and inhibited both osteogenic and chondrogenic lineage commitment. sFRP2 activity occurred through the inhibition of both Wnt and bone morphogenic protein (BMP) signaling pathways. sFRP2-mediated inhibition of BMP signaling, as assessed by levels of pSMAD 1/5/8, was independent of its effects on the Wnt pathway. We further hypothesized that sFRP2 inhibition of MSC lineage commitment may reduce heterotopic osteogenic differentiation within the injured myocardium, a reported adverse side effect. Indeed, we found that sFRP2-MSC-treated hearts and wound tissue had less ectopic calcification. This work provides important new insight into the mechanisms by which sFRP2 increases MSC self-renewal leading to superior tissue engraftment and enhanced wound healing.

Gbetagamma activates GSK3 to promote LRP6-mediated beta-catenin transcriptional activity

Evidence from Drosophila and cultured cell studies supports a role for heterotrimeric guanosine triphosphate-binding proteins (G proteins) in Wnt signaling. Wnt inhibits the degradation of the transcriptional regulator beta-catenin. We screened the alpha and betagamma subunits of major families of G proteins in a Xenopus egg extract system that reconstitutes beta-catenin degradation. We found that Galpha(o), Galpha(q), Galpha(i2), and Gbetagamma inhibited beta-catenin degradation. Gbeta(1)gamma(2) promoted the phosphorylation and activation of the Wnt co-receptor low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 6 (LRP6) by recruiting glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3) to the membrane and enhancing its kinase activity. In both a reporter gene assay and an in vivo assay, c-betaARK (C-terminal domain of beta-adrenergic receptor kinase), an inhibitor of Gbetagamma, blocked LRP6 activity. Several components of the Wnt-beta-catenin pathway formed a complex: Gbeta(1)gamma(2), LRP6, GSK3, axin, and dishevelled. We propose that free Gbetagamma and Galpha subunits, released from activated G proteins, act cooperatively to inhibit beta-catenin degradation and activate beta-catenin-mediated transcription.

Lrp6 is required for convergent extension during Xenopus gastrulation

Wnt signaling regulates beta-catenin-mediated gene transcription and planar cell polarity (PCP). The Wnt co-receptor, Lrp6, is required for signaling along the beta-catenin arm. We show that Lrp6 downregulation (by morpholino injection) or overexpression in Xenopus embryos disrupts convergent extension, a hallmark feature of Wnt/PCP components. In embryos with decreased Lrp6 levels, cells of the dorsal marginal zone (DMZ), which undergoes extensive cellular rearrangements during gastrulation, exhibit decreased length:width ratios, decreased migration, and increased numbers of transient cytoplasmic protrusions. We show that Lrp6 opposes Wnt11 activity and localizes to the posterior edge of migrating DMZ cells and that Lrp6 downregulation enhances cortical and nuclear localization of Dsh and phospho-JNK, respectively. Taken together, these data suggest that Lrp6 inhibits Wnt/PCP signaling. Finally, we identify the region of the Lrp6 protein with Wnt/PCP activity to a stretch of 36 amino acids, distinct from regions required for Wnt/beta-catenin signaling. We propose a model in which Lrp6 plays a critical role in the switch from Wnt/PCP to Wnt/beta-catenin signaling.

Assay of glutathione reductase in crude tissue homogenates using 5,5'-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic acid)

A method for assaying glutathione reductase (GSH; EC 1.6.4.2) in crude plant extracts is described. The method is based on the increase in absorbance at 412 nm when 5,5'-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB) is reduced by GSH. The effects of the following parameters on the assay were tested: various buffers, pH, buffer concentration, compounds commonly present in enzyme preparations, thiols, and the presence of another NADPH-dependent enzyme. The assay is more sensitive and less subject to interference than the widely used assay where NADPH oxidation is monitored. In particular, the specificity of DTNB allows assay of glutathione reductase in the presence of other NADPH-dependent enzymes and common protein extract contaminants.

Chronic active hepatitis of hepatitis B and non-A, non-B etiology

Sixty-six consecutive liver biopsies demonstrating chronic hepatitis (CAH) were stained for the presence of HBsAg using the three-step peroxidaseantiperoxidase technique. Only cases of CAH thought to be attributable to either hepatitis B or non-A, non-B hepatitis were included in this series. Twenty-three of 30 biopsies taken from 24 patients with HBsAg-positive serum stained positively. None of the HBsAg sero-negative cases stained postively. Hepatocytes staining positively for HBsAg were generally few in number and randomly distributed within the liver lobules. Three cases of membranous staining were noted. After grading both the degree of inflammatory activity and the amount of HBsAg staining, we found that a statistically significant inverse relationship exists. The biopsies of six of the GBsAg sero-positive patients who had received steroid therapy for their liver disease did not stain differently from the biopsies of the remaining 18 HGsAg sero-positive patients. Stains for HBsAg may help in distinguishing acute hepatitis B (HB) superimposed on preexisting liver disease from hepatitis B-CAH (CAHB). This distinction may be possible because tissue staining almost always is negative in acute HB, whereas it often is focally positive in CAHB. This application of immunoperoxidase may be especially useful in patients who are drug addicts.