Differential contribution of specific working memory components to mathematics achievement in 2nd and 3rd graders

The contribution of the three core components of working memory (WM) to the development of mathematical skills in young children is poorly understood. The relation between specific WM components and Numerical Operations, which emphasize computation and fact retrieval, and Mathematical Reasoning, which emphasizes verbal problem solving abilities in 48 2nd and 50 3rd graders was assessed using standardized WM and mathematical achievement measures. For 2nd graders, the central executive and phonological components predicted Mathematical Reasoning skills; whereas the visuo-spatial component predicted both Mathematical Reasoning and Numerical Operations skills in 3rd graders. This pattern suggests that the central executive and phonological loop facilitate performance during early stages of mathematical learning whereas visuo-spatial representations play an increasingly important role during later stages. We propose that these changes reflect a shift from prefrontal to parietal cortical functions during mathematical skill acquisition. Implications for learning and individual differences are discussed.

Negative priming from activation of counting and addition knowledge

In two experiments, subjects were presented with digit pairs (e.g., 32) and asked to respond to the rightmost number. Negative priming, that is, slowed processing, was evident when the rightmost number was a counting-string (e.g., 43 following 12) or addition-sum (e.g., 65 following 32) associate of the number pair from the preceding trial. The studies are the first to demonstrate negative priming with counting and arithmetical memory representations and suggest the obligatory activation of these representations with the presentation of number pairs. The results are also consistent with the view that negative priming often occurs at the semantic level.

When in doubt, do it both ways: brain evidence of the simultaneous activation of conflicting motor responses in a spatial stroop task

Response competition is often considered an important contributor to the delayed reaction to stimuli for which physical and semantic information are in conflict ("Stroop" effect). Response competition implies that brain areas associated with correct and incorrect responses (e.g., left and right motor cortices) should be simultaneously activated in conflict conditions. However, there is at present little direct evidence of this phenomenon, in part because of the paucity of brain imaging techniques that can independently monitor the time course of activation of adjacent brain areas, such as the motor areas. In the present study, we show that the event-related optical signal (EROS) can provide these types of data. The results confirm the prediction that conflict trials elicit simultaneous activation of both motor cortices, whereas nonconflict trials elicit brain activity only in the contralateral motor cortex. These data support a parallel view of the human information processing system.

From infancy to adulthood: the development of numerical abilities

Developmental and school-related changes in basic number, counting, and arithmetic skills from infancy to old age are reviewed. Nearly all of the quantitative competencies that emerge during infancy and the preschool years appear to reflect the operation of a biological primary, or inherent, cognitive system, and appear to be universal in their expression and development. In contrast, most of the basic quantitative competencies acquired in school and that are of importance in industrial societies do not have a direct inherent foundation. As a result, the development of these secondary quantitative abilities varies considerably with educational practices and can, and often does, vary from one country or generation to the next. Variability in the development of secondary quantitative abilities greatly complicates the study of the relation between pathological (e.g., dyscalculia due to stroke) and age-related processes and these abilities.

Sex differences in spatial cognition, computational fluency, and arithmetical reasoning

Alternative explanations for the male advantage in arithmetical reasoning, as measured by the ability to solve complex word problems, include a male advantage in spatial cognition and a male advantage in computational fluency. The current study was designed to test these competing hypotheses. To this end, 113 male and 123 female undergraduates were administered arithmetical computations and arithmetical reasoning tests, along with an IQ test and a test of spatial cognition. There was no sex difference on the IQ test, but males showed significantly higher mean scores on the arithmetical computations, arithmetical reasoning, and spatial cognition measures. A series of structural equation models indicated that individual differences in arithmetical reasoning were related to individual differences in IQ, spatial abilities, and computational fluency. Moreover, the results suggested that the male advantage in arithmetical reasoning is mediated by the male advantages in both computational fluency and spatial cognition.

Numerical and arithmetical cognition: a longitudinal study of process and concept deficits in children with learning disability

Based on the stability and level of performance on standard achievement tests in first and second grade (mean age in first grade = 82 months), children with IQ scores in the low-average to high-average range were classified as learning disabled (LD) in mathematics (MD), reading (RD), or both (MD/RD). These children (n = 42), a group of children who showed variable achievement test performance across grades (n = 16), and a control group of academically normal peers (n = 35) were administered a series of experimental and psychometric tasks. The tasks assessed number comprehension and production skills, counting knowledge, arithmetic skills, working memory, the ease of activation of phonetic representations of words and numbers, and spatial abilities. The children with variable achievement test performance did not differ from the academically normal children in any cognitive domain, whereas the children in the LD groups showed specific patterns of cognitive deficit, above and beyond the influence of IQ. Discussion focuses on the similarities and differences across the groups of LD children.

Evolution and proximate expression of human paternal investment

In more than 95% of mammalian species, males provide little direct investment in the well-being of their offspring. Humans are one notable exception to this pattern and, to date, the factors that contributed to the evolution and the proximate expression of human paternal care are unexplained (T. H. Clutton-Brock, 1989). The nature, extent, and influence of human paternal investment on the physical and social well-being of children are reviewed in light of the social and ecological factors that are associated with paternal investment in other species. On the basis of this review, discussion of the evolution and proximate expression of human paternal investment is provided.

Evolutionary developmental psychology

Evolutionary developmental psychology is the study of the genetic and ecological mechanisms that govern the development of social and cognitive competencies common to all human beings and the epigenetic (gene-environment interactions) processes that adapt these competencies to local conditions. The basic assumptions and domains of this emerging field, as related to human life history and social and cognitive development, are outlined, as are implications for issues of importance in contemporary society.

Numerical and arithmetical cognition: patterns of functions and deficits in children at risk for a mathematical disability

Based on performance on standard achievement tests, first-grade children (mean age = 82 months) with IQ scores in the low-average to high-average range were classified as at risk for a learning disability (LD) in mathematics, reading, or both. These at-risk children (n = 55) and a control group of academically normal peers (n = 35) were administered experimental tasks that assessed number comprehension and production skills, counting knowledge, arithmetic skills, working memory, and ease of retrieving information from long-term memory. Different patterns of intact cognitive functions and deficits were found for children in the different at-risk groups. As a set, performance on the experimental tasks accounted for roughly 50% and 10% of the group differences in mathematics and reading achievement, respectively, above and beyond the influence of IQ. Performance on the experimental tasks thus provides insights into the cognitive deficits underlying different forms of LD, as well as into the sources of individual differences in academic achievement.

Sex Differences in Mathematical Abilities: Commentary on the Math-Fact Retrieval Hypothesis

The hypothesis that a male advantage in speed of math-fact retrieval underlies the sex difference, favoring males, in mathematical abilities is unique and provocative. However, the hypothesis does not provide an explanation for the male advantage in mathematical domains, such as geometry, that do not require arithmetic, nor does it accommodate the sex differences in social and occupational interests that contribute to the sex difference in mathematical achievement. An alternative hypothesis focusing on the sex difference in three-dimensional spatial cognition is favored over the math-fact retrieval hypothesis. Copyright 1999 Academic Press.

Numerical cognition: age-related differences in the speed of executing biologically primary and biologically secondary processes

Groups of younger and older adults were administered numerical and arithmetical tasks that varied in the extent to which they assess evolved versus culturally specific forms of cognition, termed biologically primary and biologically secondary abilities, respectively. Componential analyses of solution times suggested that younger adults are faster than older adults in the execution of biologically primary processes. For biologically secondary competencies, a pattern of no age-related differences or an advantage for older adults in speed of processing was found. The results are consistent with the view that there has been a cross-generational decline in arithmetical competencies in the United States and are discussed in terms of models of age-related change in cognitive performance.

Functional organization of the human mind: implications for behavioral genetics research

It is proposed that the fundamental goal of human behavior is to organize and control the social, biological, and physical environments that support reproduction and survival and that the human mind is organized as a system of social, biological, and physical modules that support attempts to seek such control. More precisely, modules are systems of motivational, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral processes that provide the interface between this fundamental goal and the environments within which this goal must be achieved. An outline of this functional systems approach to the human mind is provided and the implications of this perspective for behavioral genetics research are discussed.

Comparison of the big-five factor structure across samples of Chinese and American adults

We compared the factor structure of Goldberg's (1992) 50-item Bipolar Rating Scale (50-BRS) in samples of Chinese (n = 198) and American (n = 303) students. Results confirmed the hypothesized five-factor pattern for the U.S. sample, and a simultaneous multisample confirmatory factor analysis showed that the same five-factor pattern fit the item covariances in the Chinese sample. High levels of internal consistency were found within each sample, and a high degree of congruency of corresponding item factor loadings was obtained across samples. Overall, results supported the potential utility of the Five-Factor Model and the 50-BRS for assessing personality dimensions in Chinese culture.

Development of arithmetical competencies in Chinese and American children: influence of age, language, and schooling

The arithmetical competencies of more than 200 Chinese or American kindergarten, first-, second-, or third-grade children were assessed toward the beginning and toward the end of the U.S. school year. All children were administered a paper-and-pencil test of addition skills, a digit span measure, and an addition strategy assessment. The addition strategy assessment provided information on the types of strategies the children used to solve simple addition problems as well as information on the speed and accuracy of their strategy use. Information on the number of math instruction periods across times of measurement was also obtained for each of the first-, second-, and third-grade children. The pattern of arithmetical development across the academic year and across the Chinese and American children suggests that a mix of cultural and maturational factors influence the emergence of early arithmetical competencies and that the Chinese advantage in early mathematical development is related to a combination of language- and school-related factors.

Reflections of evolution and culture in children's cognition. Implications for mathematical development and instruction

An evolution-based framework for understanding biological and cultural influences on children's cognitive and academic development is presented. The utility of this framework is illustrated within the mathematical domain and serves as a foundation for examining current approaches to educational reform in the United States. Within this framework, there are two general classes of cognitive ability, biologically primary and biologically secondary. Biologically primary cognitive abilities appear to have evolved largely by means of natural or sexual selection. Biologically secondary cognitive abilities reflect the co-optation of primary abilities for purposes other than the original evolution-based function and appear to develop only in specific cultural contexts. A distinction between these classes of ability has important implications for understanding children's cognitive development and achievement.

Mathematical disabilities: cognitive, neuropsychological, and genetic components

Cognitive, neuropsychological, and genetic correlates of mathematical achievement and mathematical disability (MD) are reviewed in an attempt to identify the core deficits underlying MD. Three types of distinct cognitive, neuropsychological, or cognitive and neuropsychological deficits associated with MD are identified. The first deficit is manifested by difficulties in the representation or retrieval of arithmetic facts from semantic memory. The second type of deficit is manifested by problems in the execution of arithmetical procedures. The third type involves problems in the visuospatial representation of numerical information. Potential cognitive, neuropsychological, and genetic factors contributing to these deficits, and the relationship between MD and reading disabilities, are discussed. Finally, suggestions for the subtyping of mathematical disorders are offered.

Simple and complex mental subtraction: strategy choice and speed-of-processing differences in younger and older adults

Thirty-six younger adults (10 male, 26 female; ages 18 to 38 years) and 36 older adults (14 male, 22 female; ages 61 to 80 years) completed simple and complex paper-and-pencil subtraction tests and solved a series of simple and complex computer-presented subtraction problems. For the computer task, strategies and solution times were recorded on a trial-by-trial basis. Older Ss used a developmentally more mature mix of problem-solving strategies to solve both simple and complex subtraction problems. Analyses of component scores derived from the solution times suggest that the older Ss are slower at number encoding and number production but faster at executing the borrow procedure. In contrast, groups did not appear to differ in the speed of subtraction fact retrieval. Results from a computational simulation are consistent with the interpretation that older adults' advantage for strategy choices and for the speed of executing the borrow procedure might result from more practice solving subtraction problems.

Simple and complex mental subtraction: strategy choice and speed-of-processing differences in younger and older adults

Thirty-six younger adults (10 male, 26 female; ages 18 to 38 years) and 36 older adults (14 male, 22 female; ages 61 to 80 years) completed simple and complex paper-and-pencil subtraction tests and solved a series of simple and complex computer-presented subtraction problems. For the computer task, strategies and solution times were recorded on a trial-by-trial basis. Older Ss used a developmentally more mature mix of problem-solving strategies to solve both simple and complex subtraction problems. Analyses of component scores derived from the solution times suggest that the older Ss are slower at number encoding and number production but faster at executing the borrow procedure. In contrast, groups did not appear to differ in the speed of subtraction fact retrieval. Results from a computational simulation are consistent with the interpretation that older adults' advantage for strategy choices and for the speed of executing the borrow procedure might result from more practice solving subtraction problems.

Effects of practice on component processes in complex mental addition

Two experiments examined the effects of task practice on the speed of executing the component processes underlying the mental solution of complex addition problems. Componential analyses of Ss' response times in Experiment 1 demonstrated that the component process of carrying was reliably affected by amount of task practice. In contrast, the component processes of encoding single digits and of retrieving correct columnar answers from long-term memory appeared not to have been affected by amount of task practice. Computational feasibility checks indicated that the specificity of the practice effects could be explained by 2 distinct learning mechanisms: strengthening and composition. Results of Experiments 2A and 2B favor a composition explanation. We conclude that the differential practice effects in Experiment 1 are probably due to differential composition of component processes underlying complex mental addition.

Effects of practice on component processes in complex mental addition

Two experiments examined the effects of task practice on the speed of executing the component processes underlying the mental solution of complex addition problems. Componential analyses of Ss' response times in Experiment 1 demonstrated that the component process of carrying was reliably affected by amount of task practice. In contrast, the component processes of encoding single digits and of retrieving correct columnar answers from long-term memory appeared not to have been affected by amount of task practice. Computational feasibility checks indicated that the specificity of the practice effects could be explained by 2 distinct learning mechanisms: strengthening and composition. Results of Experiments 2A and 2B favor a composition explanation. We conclude that the differential practice effects in Experiment 1 are probably due to differential composition of component processes underlying complex mental addition.

Counting knowledge and skill in cognitive addition: a comparison of normal and mathematically disabled children

The relationship between counting knowledge and computational skills (i.e., skill at counting to solve addition problems) was assessed for groups of first-grade normal and mathematically disabled (MD) children. Twenty-four normal and 13 MD children were administered a series of counting tasks and solved 40 computer-administered addition problems. For the addition task, problem-solving strategies were recorded on a trial-by-trial basis. Performance on the counting tasks suggested that the MD children were developmentally delayed in the understanding of essential and unessential features of counting and were relatively unskilled in the detection of certain forms of counting error. On the addition task, the MD children committed many more computational errors and tended to use developmentally immature counting procedures. The immature counting knowledge of the MD children, combined with their relatively poor skills at detecting counting errors, appeared to underlie their poor computational skills on the addition task. Suggestions for future research are presented.

Cognitive addition: Strategy choice and speed-of-processing differences in young and elderly adults

Sixty young and 60 elderly adults completed a pencil-and-paper addition test and solved 40 computer-presented simple addition problems. Strategies and problem solution times were recorded on a trial-by-trial basis and were classified in accordance with the distributions of associations model of strategy choices. The elderly group showed a performance advantage on the ability measure and for the developmental maturity of the mix of problem-solving strategies, but the young group showed an advantage for overall solution times. A componential analysis of the overall solution times for memory retrieval trials, however, showed no reliable age difference for rate of retrieving addition facts from long-term memory but did suggest that the elderly adults might have been slower than the younger adults for rate of encoding digits and verbally producing an answer. Overall results are interpreted within the context of the strategy choice model.

Metamemory and academic achievement: testing the validity of a group-administered metamemory battery

This study was designed to assess the validity of a recently introduced group-administered battery of metamemory tasks for children and to concurrently assess the relationship between performance on these tasks and academic achievement for second- and fourth-grade normal and learning-disabled (LD) children. Consistent with theoretical predictions and with results from individually administered metamemory tasks, significant age-related performance differences were found for four of the battery's five subtests. However, three of these four performance differences appeared to be due to a floor effect--that is, the second graders performed at chance levels for all but one of the subtests. Nevertheless, modest zero-order correlations between academic achievement measures and scores on metamemory subtests, which did show interpretable age-related performance differences, were found, as were significant group (normal versus LD) differences for fourth graders. In all, these results provided some support for the validity and the utility of the group-administered metamemory battery, although the performance of young children must be interpreted with caution.

A componential analysis of an early learning deficit in mathematics

This study was designed to assess strategy choice and information-processing differences in normal and mathematically disabled first and second grade children. Twenty-three normal and 29 learning disabled (LD) children solved 40 computer-presented simple addition problems. Strategies, and their associated solution times, used in problem solving were recorded on a trial-by-trial basis and each was classified in accordance with the distributions of associations model of strategy choices. Based on performance in a remedial education course, as indexed by achievement test scores, the LD sample was reclassified into a LD-improved group and an LD-no-change group. No substantive differences comparing the normal and LD-improved groups occurred in the distribution of strategy choices, strategy characteristics (e.g., error rates), or rate of information processing. The performance characteristics of the LD-no-change group, as compared to the two remaining groups, included frequent counting and memory retrieval errors, frequent use of an immature computational strategy, poor strategy choices, and a variable rate of information processing. These performance characteristics were discussed in terms of the strategy choice model and in terms of potential long-term memory and working memory capacity deficits. In addition, implications for remedial education in mathematics were discussed.

A componential model for mental addition

A componential model capable of representing simple and complex forms of mental addition was proposed and then tested by using chronometric techniques. A sample of 23 undergraduate students responded to 800 addition problems in a true-false reaction time paradigm. The 800 problems comprised 200 problems of each of four types: two single-digit addends, one single- and one double-digit addend, two double-digit addends, and three single-digit addends. The results revealed that the columnwise product of addends, a structural variable consistent with a memory network retrieval process, was the best predictor of mental addition for each of the four types of problem. Importantly, the componential model allowed estimation of effects of several other structural variables, e.g., carrying to the next column and speed of encoding of digits. High levels of explained variance verified the power of the model to represent the reaction time data, and the stability of estimates across types of problem implied consistent component use by subjects. Implications for research on mental addition are discussed.

A componential model for mental addition

A componential model capable of representing simple and complex forms of mental addition was proposed and then tested by using chronometric techniques. A sample of 23 undergraduate students responded to 800 addition problems in a true-false reaction time paradigm. The 800 problems comprised 200 problems of each of four types: two single-digit addends, one single- and one double-digit addend, two double-digit addends, and three single-digit addends. The results revealed that the columnwise product of addends, a structural variable consistent with a memory network retrieval process, was the best predictor of mental addition for each of the four types of problem. Importantly, the componential model allowed estimation of effects of several other structural variables, e.g., carrying to the next column and speed of encoding of digits. High levels of explained variance verified the power of the model to represent the reaction time data, and the stability of estimates across types of problem implied consistent component use by subjects. Implications for research on mental addition are discussed.

Rorschach predictors of therapeutic outcome for inpatient treatment of children: a proactive study

The present study tested the hypothesis that Rorschach measures of psychological instability and perceptual sensitivity (i.e., es, es-EA, Lambda, Blends, Zf, & Zsum) would be sensitive to therapeutic change after inpatient treatment of children. Twelve male children were administered the Rorschach Ink Blot test in accordance with Exner's (1986) procedures and comprehensive system, pretreatment and posttreatment. The 12 children received inpatient treatment an average of 12 months, and all children showed improved functioning after treatment. Pre- to posttreatment Rorschach performance changes provided a partial confirmation of the hypothesis. Specifically, significant changes in es and Lambda were found posttreatment. As such, these Rorschach variables appear to be sensitive to therapeutic change in children.

Individual differences in cognitive arithmetic

Unities in the processes involved in solving arithmetic problems of varying operations have been suggested by studies that have used both factor-analytic and information-processing methods. We designed the present study to investigate the convergence of mental processes assessed by paper-and-pencil measures defining the Numerical Facility factor and component processes for cognitive arithmetic identified by using chronometric techniques. A sample of 100 undergraduate students responded to 320 arithmetic problems in a true-false reaction-time (RT) verification paradigm and were administered a battery of ability measures spanning Numerical Facility, Perceptual Speed, and Spatial Relations factors. The 320 cognitive arithmetic problems comprised 80 problems of each of four types: simple addition, complex addition, simple multiplication, and complex multiplication. The information-processing results indicated that regression models that included a structural variable consistent with memory network retrieval of arithmetic facts were the best predictors of RT to each of the four types of arithmetic problems. The results also verified the effects of other elementary processes that are involved in the mental solving of arithmetic problems, including encoding of single digits and carrying to the next column for complex problems. The relation between process components and ability measures was examined by means of structural equation modeling. The final structural model revealed a strong direct relation between a factor subsuming efficiency of retrieval of arithmetic facts and of executing the carry operation and the traditional Numerical Facility factor. Furthermore, a moderate direct relation between a factor subsuming speed of encoding digits and decision and response times and the traditional Perceptual Speed factor was also found. No relation between structural variables representing cognitive arithmetic component processes and ability measures spanning the Spatial Relations factor was found. Results of the structural modeling support the conclusion that information retrieval from a network of arithmetic facts and execution of the carry operation are elementary component processes involved uniquely in the mental solving of arithmetic problems. Furthermore, individual differences in the speed of executing these two elementary component processes appear to underlie individual differences on ability measures that traditionally span the Numerical Facility factor.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Structure of adaptive behavior: I. Replication across fourteen samples of nonprofoundly mentally retarded people

A two-step procedure was used to investigate the dimensional structure of adaptive behavior of mildly, moderately, and severely mentally retarded people. The first step consisted of item factor analyses of the 66-item Client Development Evaluation Report for two derivation samples, each containing 3,024 subjects; results revealed a high degree of cross-sample similarity. Using the preceding results, we conducted parcel factor analyses for 14 samples of retarded people (average sample size, 676). These analyses resulted in a quite stable six-factor structure of adaptive behavior: Motor Development, Independent-Living Skills, Cognitive Competence, Social Competence, Social (or Extrapunitive) Maladaption, and Personal (or Intrapunitive) Maladaption. The implications for research and theory of the highly replicable six-factor structure of adaptive behavior were discussed.

Individual differences in cognitive arithmetic

Unities in the processes involved in solving arithmetic problems of varying operations have been suggested by studies that have used both factor-analytic and information-processing methods. We designed the present study to investigate the convergence of mental processes assessed by paper-and-pencil measures defining the Numerical Facility factor and component processes for cognitive arithmetic identified by using chronometric techniques. A sample of 100 undergraduate students responded to 320 arithmetic problems in a true-false reaction-time (RT) verification paradigm and were administered a battery of ability measures spanning Numerical Facility, Perceptual Speed, and Spatial Relations factors. The 320 cognitive arithmetic problems comprised 80 problems of each of four types: simple addition, complex addition, simple multiplication, and complex multiplication. The information-processing results indicated that regression models that included a structural variable consistent with memory network retrieval of arithmetic facts were the best predictors of RT to each of the four types of arithmetic problems. The results also verified the effects of other elementary processes that are involved in the mental solving of arithmetic problems, including encoding of single digits and carrying to the next column for complex problems. The relation between process components and ability measures was examined by means of structural equation modeling. The final structural model revealed a strong direct relation between a factor subsuming efficiency of retrieval of arithmetic facts and of executing the carry operation and the traditional Numerical Facility factor. Furthermore, a moderate direct relation between a factor subsuming speed of encoding digits and decision and response times and the traditional Perceptual Speed factor was also found. No relation between structural variables representing cognitive arithmetic component processes and ability measures spanning the Spatial Relations factor was found. Results of the structural modeling support the conclusion that information retrieval from a network of arithmetic facts and execution of the carry operation are elementary component processes involved uniquely in the mental solving of arithmetic problems. Furthermore, individual differences in the speed of executing these two elementary component processes appear to underlie individual differences on ability measures that traditionally span the Numerical Facility factor.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Performance on the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Test Battery-Children's Revision: a comparison of children with and without significant WISC-R VIQ-PIQ discrepancies

Fifty-six children, aged 8 to 13, were divided into three groups based on the degree and direction of their WISC-R VIQ-PIQ discrepancies. Group 1 was composed of 13 males and 6 females whose PIQ exceeded their VIQ by at least 12 points (V less than P); Group 2 was made up of 12 males and 6 females with VIQs that exceeded their PIQs by 12 or more points (P less than V); Group 3 was comprised of 9 males and 10 females whose V-P differences failed to exceed 8 points in either direction (P = V). The performance of these children on the 11 subscales of the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery-Children's Revision was compared. Univariate F-tests revealed significant differences among the groups on the Receptive Speech, p less than .01, and Expressive Language subscales, p less than .001. Further analyses that utilized two-tailed t-tests found the V less than P group to perform significantly less well than the P = V group on the Receptive Speech and Expressive Language scales. The V less than P group was also significantly worse than the P less than V group on the Expressive Language scale. These results suggest a possible differential sensitivity of the children's Luria-Nebraska to verbal and nonverbal cognitive deficits.

Experimental analysis of adherence counseling: implications for hypertension management

A time series "reversal" design demonstrated that behavioral counseling increased medication adherence from about 60 to 100% for a black, hypertensive patient. However, inadequate pharmacological treatment yielded no clinically important blood pressure decrease. The combination of improved compliance and minimal blood pressure reduction led the patient's physician to explore higher doses and alternate medications to achieve blood pressure control. The physician's aggressive medical treatment was initiated only after the patient's compliance had been improved. Thus, this study suggests that paraprofessional counseling can increase compliance and illustrates the need for both behavioral and physiological data in clinical management to avoid blaming patients for poorly controlled blood pressure.

The Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery-Children's Revision: comparison of learning disabled and normal children matched on full scale IQ

17 academically normal and 17 reading disabled children were matched on Full Scale IQ and compared on the Luria-Nebraska Neuropsychological Battery-Children's Revision. The academically normal group performed significantly better on the Expressive Language, Writing, Reading, and Rhythm subscales, which suggests that the Luria-Nebraska may be sensitive to deficits not reflected in Full Scale IQ. Results are consistent with previous research and support the validity of the Luria-Nebraska, although simplistic interpretation of the battery's subscales should be avoided.

The effects of lay counseling on medication adherence and blood pressure: adjunctive treatment for hypertension

Ten noncompliant hypertensive patients were monitored and received counseling from trained aides. Monitoring and lay counseling was associated with a reduction of -10 mmHg in systolic blood pressure and of -7 mmHg in diastolic pressure (P less than 0.05). Medication adherence increased from 69% to 84%. Counseling resulted in pressure decreases equal to those obtained by usual care for similar but compliant patients. This analysis provides a model for paraprofessional adjunctive counseling of patients thought to be adhering poorly to their medication regimen, which may improve control of hypertension.