NLR diversity and candidate fusiform rust resistance genes in loblolly pine

Resistance to fusiform rust disease in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) is a classic gene-for-gene system. Early resistance gene mapping in the P. taeda family 10-5 identified RAPD markers for a major fusiform rust resistance gene, Fr1. More recently, single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers associated with resistance were mapped to a full-length gene model in the loblolly pine genome encoding for a nucleotide-binding site leucine-rich repeat (NLR) protein. NLR genes are one of the most abundant gene families in plant genomes and are involved in effector-triggered immunity. Inter- and intraspecies studies of NLR gene diversity and expression have resulted in improved disease resistance. To characterize NLR gene diversity and discover potential resistance genes, we assembled de novo transcriptomes from 92 loblolly genotypes from across the natural range of the species. In these transcriptomes, we identified novel NLR transcripts that are not present in the loblolly pine reference genome and found significant geographic diversity of NLR genes providing evidence of gene family evolution. We designed capture probes for these NLRs to identify and map SNPs that stably cosegregate with resistance to the SC20-21 isolate of Cronartium quercuum f.sp. fusiforme (Cqf) in half-sib progeny of the 10-5 family. We identified 10 SNPs and 2 quantitative trait loci associated with resistance to SC20-21 Cqf. The geographic diversity of NLR genes provides evidence of NLR gene family evolution in loblolly pine. The SNPs associated with rust resistance provide a resource to enhance breeding and deployment of resistant pine seedlings.

The uncharacterized gene EVE contributes to vessel element dimensions in Populus

The radiation of angiosperms led to the emergence of the vast majority of today's plant species and all our major food crops. Their extraordinary diversification occurred in conjunction with the evolution of a more efficient vascular system for the transport of water, composed of vessel elements. The physical dimensions of these water-conducting specialized cells have played a critical role in angiosperm evolution; they determine resistance to water flow, influence photosynthesis rate, and contribute to plant stature. However, the genetic factors that determine their dimensions are unclear. Here we show that a previously uncharacterized gene, ENLARGED VESSEL ELEMENT (EVE), contributes to the dimensions of vessel elements in Populus, impacting hydraulic conductivity. Our data suggest that EVE is localized in the plasma membrane and is involved in potassium uptake of differentiating xylem cells during vessel development. In plants, EVE first emerged in streptophyte algae, but expanded dramatically among vessel-containing angiosperms. The phylogeny, structure and composition of EVE indicates that it may have been involved in an ancient horizontal gene-transfer event.

Breeding and Engineering Trees to Accumulate High Levels of Terpene Metabolites for Plant Defense and Renewable Chemicals

Plants evolved the capacity to synthesize highly diverse sets of secondary metabolites which are important for plant adaptation and health. In forest trees, many classes of compounds, particularly ones related to defense against insects, fungi, and bacteria accumulate to levels that enable their recovery and commercial use. One of the oldest examples is conifer terpenes, but terpenes are important secondary products from other tree species including eucalypts. Because terpenes, latex, and natural gums are synthesized and stored in specialized secretory glands, ducts, and laticifers in mostly pure forms they can be collected from live trees in addition to being extracted during industrial processing of wood. This minireview describes the potential of breeding and genetic engineering approaches to increase the quantities of terpene secondary metabolites to increase the amount of secondary products and thereby increasing the value of planted and managed forest trees. I advance the view that breeding and genetic engineering of metabolic pathways and specialized cell secretory structures can dramatically increase tissue terpene content.

Enhanced Single Seed Trait Predictions in Soybean (Glycine max) and Robust Calibration Model Transfer with Near-Infrared Reflectance Spectroscopy

Single seed near-infrared reflectance (NIR) spectroscopy predicts soybean (Glycine max) seed quality traits of moisture, oil, and protein. We tested the accuracy of transferring calibrations between different single seed NIR analyzers of the same design by collecting NIR spectra and analytical trait data for globally diverse soybean germplasm. X-ray microcomputed tomography (μCT) was used to collect seed density and shape traits to enhance the number of soybean traits that can be predicted from single seed NIR. Partial least-squares (PLS) regression gave accurate predictive models for oil, weight, volume, protein, and maximal cross-sectional area of the seed. PLS models for width, length, and density were not predictive. Although principal component analysis (PCA) of the NIR spectra showed that black seed coat color had significant signal, excluding black seeds from the calibrations did not impact model accuracies. Calibrations for oil and protein developed in this study as well as earlier calibrations for a separate NIR analyzer of the same design were used to test the ability to transfer PLS regressions between platforms. PLS models built from data collected on one NIR analyzer had minimal differences in accuracy when applied to spectra collected from a sister device. Model transfer was more robust when spectra were trimmed from 910 to 1679 nm to 955-1635 nm due to divergence of edge wavelengths between the two devices. The ability to transfer calibrations between similar single seed NIR spectrometers facilitates broader adoption of this high-throughput, nondestructive, seed phenotyping technology.

Tubulin perturbation leads to unexpected cell wall modifications and affects stomatal behaviour in Populus

Cortical microtubules are integral to plant morphogenesis, cell wall synthesis, and stomatal behaviour, presumably by governing cellulose microfibril orientation. Genetic manipulation of tubulins often leads to abnormal plant development, making it difficult to probe additional roles of cortical microtubules in cell wall biogenesis. Here, it is shown that expressing post-translational C-terminal modification mimics of α-tubulin altered cell wall characteristics and guard cell dynamics in transgenic Populus tremula x alba that otherwise appear normal. 35S promoter-driven transgene expression was high in leaves but unusually low in xylem, suggesting high levels of tubulin transgene expression were not tolerated in wood-forming tissues during regeneration of transformants. Cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin contents were unaffected in transgenic wood, but expression of cell wall-modifying enzymes, and extractability of lignin-bound pectin and xylan polysaccharides were increased in developing xylem. The results suggest that pectin and xylan polysaccharides deposited early during cell wall biogenesis are more sensitive to subtle tubulin perturbation than cellulose and matrix polysaccharides deposited later. Tubulin perturbation also affected guard cell behaviour, delaying drought-induced stomatal closure as well as light-induced stomatal opening in leaves. Pectins have been shown to confer cell wall flexibility critical for reversible stomatal movement, and results presented here are consistent with microtubule involvement in this process. Taken together, the data show the value of growth-compatible tubulin perturbations for discerning microtubule functions, and add to the growing body of evidence for microtubule involvement in non-cellulosic polysaccharide assembly during cell wall biogenesis.

Discovering candidate genes that regulate resin canal number in Pinus taeda stems by integrating genetic analysis across environments, ages, and populations

Genetically improving constitutive resin canal development in Pinus stems may enhance the capacity to synthesize terpenes for bark beetle resistance, chemical feedstocks, and biofuels. To discover genes that potentially regulate axial resin canal number (RCN), single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 4027 genes were tested for association with RCN in two growth rings and three environments in a complex pedigree of 520 Pinus taeda individuals (CCLONES). The map locations of associated genes were compared with RCN quantitative trait loci (QTLs) in a (P. taeda × Pinus elliottii) × P. elliottii pseudo-backcross of 345 full-sibs (BC1). Resin canal number was heritable (h(2) ˜ 0.12-0.21) and positively genetically correlated with xylem growth (rg ˜ 0.32-0.72) and oleoresin flow (rg ˜ 0.15-0.51). Sixteen well-supported candidate regulators of RCN were discovered in CCLONES, including genes associated across sites and ages, unidirectionally associated with oleoresin flow and xylem growth, and mapped to RCN QTLs in BC1. Breeding is predicted to increase RCN 11% in one generation and could be accelerated with genomic selection at accuracies of 0.45-0.52 across environments. There is significant genetic variation for RCN in loblolly pine, which can be exploited in breeding for elevated terpene content.

Analysis of maize ( Zea mays ) kernel density and volume using microcomputed tomography and single-kernel near-infrared spectroscopy

Maize kernel density affects milling quality of the grain. Kernel density of bulk samples can be predicted by near-infrared reflectance (NIR) spectroscopy, but no accurate method to measure individual kernel density has been reported. This study demonstrates that individual kernel density and volume are accurately measured using X-ray microcomputed tomography (μCT). Kernel density was significantly correlated with kernel volume, air space within the kernel, and protein content. Embryo density and volume did not influence overall kernel density. Partial least-squares (PLS) regression of μCT traits with single-kernel NIR spectra gave stable predictive models for kernel density (R(2) = 0.78, SEP = 0.034 g/cm(3)) and volume (R(2) = 0.86, SEP = 2.88 cm(3)). Density and volume predictions were accurate for data collected over 10 months based on kernel weights calculated from predicted density and volume (R(2) = 0.83, SEP = 24.78 mg). Kernel density was significantly correlated with bulk test weight (r = 0.80), suggesting that selection of dense kernels can translate to improved agronomic performance.

Association genetics of oleoresin flow in loblolly pine: discovering genes and predicting phenotype for improved resistance to bark beetles and bioenergy potential

Rapidly enhancing oleoresin production in conifer stems through genomic selection and genetic engineering may increase resistance to bark beetles and terpenoid yield for liquid biofuels. We integrated association genetic and genomic prediction analyses of oleoresin flow (g 24 h(-1)) using 4854 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in expressed genes within a pedigreed population of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) that was clonally replicated at three sites in the southeastern United States. Additive genetic variation in oleoresin flow (h(2) ≈ 0.12-0.30) was strongly correlated between years in which precipitation varied (r(a) ≈ 0.95), while the genetic correlation between sites declined from 0.8 to 0.37 with increasing differences in soil and climate among sites. A total of 231 SNPs were significantly associated with oleoresin flow, of which 81% were specific to individual sites. SNPs in sequences similar to ethylene signaling proteins, ABC transporters, and diterpenoid hydroxylases were associated with oleoresin flow across sites. Despite this complex genetic architecture, we developed a genomic prediction model to accelerate breeding for enhanced oleoresin flow that is robust to environmental variation. Results imply that breeding could increase oleoresin flow 1.5- to 2.4-fold in one generation.

Accelerating the domestication of trees using genomic selection: accuracy of prediction models across ages and environments

• Genomic selection is increasingly considered vital to accelerate genetic improvement. However, it is unknown how accurate genomic selection prediction models remain when used across environments and ages. This knowledge is critical for breeders to apply this strategy in genetic improvement. • Here, we evaluated the utility of genomic selection in a Pinus taeda population of c. 800 individuals clonally replicated and grown on four sites, and genotyped for 4825 single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers. Prediction models were estimated for diameter and height at multiple ages using genomic random regression best linear unbiased predictor (BLUP). • Accuracies of prediction models ranged from 0.65 to 0.75 for diameter, and 0.63 to 0.74 for height. The selection efficiency per unit time was estimated as 53-112% higher using genomic selection compared with phenotypic selection, assuming a reduction of 50% in the breeding cycle. Accuracies remained high across environments as long as they were used within the same breeding zone. However, models generated at early ages did not perform well to predict phenotypes at age 6 yr. • These results demonstrate the feasibility and remarkable gain that can be achieved by incorporating genomic selection in breeding programs, as long as models are used at the relevant selection age and within the breeding zone in which they were estimated.

Cellulose Synthase-Like D1 is integral to normal cell division, expansion, and leaf development in maize

The Cellulose Synthase-Like D (CslD) genes have important, although still poorly defined, roles in cell wall formation. Here, we show an unexpected involvement of CslD1 from maize (Zea mays) in cell division. Both division and expansion were altered in the narrow-organ and warty phenotypes of the csld1 mutants. Leaf width was reduced by 35%, due mainly to a 47% drop in the number of cell files across the blade. Width of other organs was also proportionally reduced. In leaf epidermis, the deficiency in lateral divisions was only partially compensated by a modest, uniform increase in cell width. Localized clusters of misdivided epidermal cells also led to the formation of warty lesions, with cell clusters bulging from the epidermal layer, and some cells expanding to volumes 75-fold greater than normal. The decreased cell divisions and localized epidermal expansions were not associated with detectable changes in the cell wall composition of csld1 leaf blades or epidermal peels, yet a greater abundance of thin, dense walls was indicated by high-resolution x-ray tomography of stems. Cell-level defects leading to wart formation were traced to sites of active cell division and expansion at the bases of leaf blades, where cytokinesis and cross-wall formation were disrupted. Flow cytometry confirmed a greater frequency of polyploid cells in basal zones of leaf blades, consistent with the disruption of cytokinesis and/or the cell cycle in csld1 mutants. Collectively, these data indicate a previously unrecognized role for CSLD activity in plant cell division, especially during early phases of cross-wall formation.

Accelerating the domestication of trees using genomic selection: accuracy of prediction models across ages and environments

• Genomic selection is increasingly considered vital to accelerate genetic improvement. However, it is unknown how accurate genomic selection prediction models remain when used across environments and ages. This knowledge is critical for breeders to apply this strategy in genetic improvement. • Here, we evaluated the utility of genomic selection in a Pinus taeda population of c. 800 individuals clonally replicated and grown on four sites, and genotyped for 4825 single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers. Prediction models were estimated for diameter and height at multiple ages using genomic random regression best linear unbiased predictor (BLUP). • Accuracies of prediction models ranged from 0.65 to 0.75 for diameter, and 0.63 to 0.74 for height. The selection efficiency per unit time was estimated as 53-112% higher using genomic selection compared with phenotypic selection, assuming a reduction of 50% in the breeding cycle. Accuracies remained high across environments as long as they were used within the same breeding zone. However, models generated at early ages did not perform well to predict phenotypes at age 6 yr. • These results demonstrate the feasibility and remarkable gain that can be achieved by incorporating genomic selection in breeding programs, as long as models are used at the relevant selection age and within the breeding zone in which they were estimated.

Perturbation of wood cellulose synthesis causes pleiotropic effects in transgenic aspen

Genetic manipulation of cellulose biosynthesis in trees may provide novel insights into the growth and development of trees. To explore this possibility, the overexpression of an aspen secondary wall-associated cellulose synthase (PtdCesA8) gene was attempted in transgenic aspen (Populus tremuloides L.) and unexpectedly resulted in silencing of the transgene as well as its endogenous counterparts. The main axis of the transgenic aspen plants quickly stopped growing, and weak branches adopted a weeping growth habit. Furthermore, transgenic plants initially developed smaller leaves and a less extensive root system. Secondary xylem (wood) of transgenic aspen plants contained as little as 10% cellulose normalized to dry weight compared to 41% cellulose typically found in normal aspen wood. This massive reduction in cellulose was accompanied by proportional increases in lignin (35%) and non-cellulosic polysaccharides (55%) compared to the 22% lignin and 36% non-cellulosic polysaccharides in control plants. The transgenic stems produced typical collapsed or 'irregular' xylem vessels that had altered secondary wall morphology and contained greatly reduced amounts of crystalline cellulose. These results demonstrate the fundamental role of secondary wall cellulose within the secondary xylem in maintaining the strength and structural integrity required to establish the vertical growth habit in trees.

Hydraulic architecture and tracheid allometry in mature Pinus palustris and Pinus elliottii trees

Pinus palustris Mill. (longleaf pine, LL) and Pinus elliottii Engelm. var. elliottii (slash pine, SL) frequently co-occur in lower coastal plain flatwoods of the USA, with LL typically inhabiting slightly higher and better-drained microsites than SL. The hydraulic architecture and tracheid dimensions of roots, trunk and branches of mature LL and SL trees were compared to understand their role in species microsite occupation. Root xylem had higher sapwood-specific hydraulic conductivity (k(s)) and was less resistant to cavitation compared with branches and trunk sapwood. Root k(s) of LL was significantly higher than SL, whereas branch and trunk k(s) did not differ between species. No differences in vulnerability to cavitation were observed in any of the organs between species. Across all organs, there was a significant but weak trade-off between water conduction efficiency and safety. Tracheid hydraulic diameter (D(h)) was strongly correlated with k(s) across all organs, explaining >73% of the variation in k(s). In contrast, tracheid length (L(t)) explained only 2.4% of the variability. Nevertheless, for trunk xylem, k(s) was 39.5% higher at 20 m compared with 1.8 m; this increase in k(s) was uncorrelated with D(h) and cell-wall thickness but was strongly correlated with the difference in L(t). Tracheid allometry markedly changed between sapwood of roots, trunks and branches, possibly reflecting different mechanical constraints. Even though vulnerability to cavitation was not different for sapwood of roots, branches or the trunks of LL and SL, higher sapwood to leaf area ratio and higher maximum sapwood-specific hydraulic conductivity in roots of LL are functional traits that may provide LL with a competitive advantage on drier soil microsites.

Quantitative genetic analysis of biomass and wood chemistry of Populus under different nitrogen levels

The genetic control of carbon allocation and partitioning in woody perennial plants is poorly understood despite its importance for carbon sequestration, biofuels and other wood-based industries. It is also unclear how environmental cues, such as nitrogen availability, impact the genes that regulate growth, biomass allocation and wood composition in trees. We phenotyped 396 clonally replicated genotypes of an interspecific pseudo-backcross pedigree of Populus for wood composition and biomass traits in above- and below-ground organs. The loci that regulate growth, carbon allocation and partitioning under two nitrogen conditions were identified, defining the contribution of environmental cues to their genetic control. Sixty-three quantitative trait loci were identified for the 20 traits analyzed. The majority of quantitative trait loci are specific to one of the two nitrogen treatments, demonstrating significant nitrogen-dependent genetic control. A highly significant genetic correlation was observed between plant growth and lignin/cellulose composition, and quantitative trait loci co-localization identified the genomic position of potential pleiotropic regulators. Pleiotropic loci linking higher growth rates to wood with less lignin are excellent targets to engineer tree germplasm improved for pulp, paper and cellulosic ethanol production. The causative genes are being identified with a genetical genomics approach.

Influence of the cell wall on intracellular delivery to algal cells by electroporation and sonication

To assess the cell wall's role as a barrier to intracellular delivery, wild-type Chlamydomonas reinhardtii algal cells and mutant cells lacking a cell wall were exposed to electroporation or sonication. Flow cytometry determined intracellular uptake of calcein and bovine serum albumin (BSA) and loss of cell viability as functions of electroporation transmembrane potential and acoustic energy. Electroporation of wild-type cells increased calcein uptake with increasing transmembrane potential, but delivered much less BSA. Electroporation of wall-deficient cells had similar effects on calcein uptake, but increased BSA uptake as much as 7.5-fold relative to wild-type cells, which indicated that the cell wall was a significant barrier to BSA delivery during electroporation. Sonication of wild-type cells caused calcein and BSA uptake at similar levels. This suggests that the cell wall barrier to BSA delivery can be overcome by sonication. Increased electroporation transmembrane potential or acoustic energy also caused increased loss of cell viability, where wall-deficient cells were especially susceptible to lysis. Overall, we believe this is the first study to compare directly the effects of electroporation and sonication in any cell type. Specifically, these findings suggest that electroporation primarily transports molecules across the plasma membrane because its mechanism is specific to lipid bilayer disruption, whereas sonication transports molecules across both the plasma membrane and cell wall, because it nonspecifically disrupts cell-surface barriers.

Improved somatic embryo maturation in loblolly pine by monitoring ABA-responsive gene expression

During loblolly pine zygotic embryo development, increases in mRNAs for three ABA-responsive LEA-like genes coincided with the two developmental stage-specific peaks of endogenous ABA accumulation (Kapik et al. 1995). These ABA concentration profiles from zygotic embryo development were used to develop several tissue culture approaches that altered the exposure of somatic embryos to exogenous ABA. Elevating exogenous ABA at a time corresponding to mid-maturation improved the germination and resulted in more zygotic-like expression of selected genes in somatic embryos. Extending the time on maturation medium for a fourth month increased embryo yield, dry weight, and germination in high-and low-yield genotypes. Optimizing the amounts of embryogenic suspension, plated and exogenous ABA concentration increased from 22 to 66% in the early-stage bipolar embryos that developed to the cotyledonary stage.

Comparison of standard exponential and linear techniques to amplify small cDNA samples for microarrays

BACKGROUND

The need to perform microarray experiments with small amounts of tissue has led to the development of several protocols for amplifying the target transcripts. The use of different amplification protocols could affect the comparability of microarray experiments.

RESULTS

Here we compare expression data from Pinus taeda cDNA microarrays using transcripts amplified either exponentially by PCR or linearly by T7 transcription. The amplified transcripts vary significantly in estimated length, GC content and expression depending on amplification technique. Amplification by T7 RNA polymerase gives transcripts with a greater range of lengths, greater estimated mean length, and greater variation of expression levels, but lower average GC content, than those from PCR amplification. For genes with significantly higher expression after T7 transcription than after PCR, the transcripts were 27% longer and had about 2 percentage units lower GC content. The correlation of expression intensities between technical repeats was high for both methods (R2 = 0.98) whereas the correlation of expression intensities using the different methods was considerably lower (R2 = 0.52). Correlation of expression intensities between amplified and unamplified transcripts were intermediate (R2 = 0.68-0.77).

CONCLUSION

Amplification with T7 transcription better reflects the variation of the unamplified transcriptome than PCR based methods owing to the better representation of long transcripts. If transcripts of particular interest are known to have high GC content and are of limited length, however, PCR-based methods may be preferable.

1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate synthase in tomato is encoded by a multigene family whose transcription is induced during fruit and floral senescence

The key regulatory enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway of the plant hormone ethylene is 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) synthase (EC 4.1.1.14). It catalyzes the conversion of S-adenosylmethionine to ACC, the precursor of ethylene. We isolated complementary DNA sequences, ptACC2 and ptACC4, for two distinct and differentially regulated ACC synthase mRNAs expressed in ripe tomato fruit. The authenticity of the clones has been confirmed by expression experiments in E. coli. The predicted size of the encoded polypeptides (54,690 and 53,519 Da) is similar to that of the primary in vitro translation products and to the proteins found in vivo. The sequence of the gene encoding one mRNA, LE-ACC2, has been determined and its transcription initiation site defined. Four additional genes, LE-ACC1A, LE-ACC1B, LE-ACC3 and LE-ACC4, have also been identified and the sequence of their coding regions determined. The LE-ACC1A and LE-ACC1B genes are adjacent to each other and are convergently transcribed. Their encoded polypeptides are 96% identical; the identity of the other polypeptides to each other varies between 50 and 70%. The proteins predicted to be encoded by the ACC synthase genes so far cloned from tomato and zucchini contain 11 of the 12 conserved amino acid residues found in various aminotransferases involved in the binding of the substrate and the cofactor pyridoxal-5'-phosphate. The data indicate that ACC synthase is encoded by a divergent multigene family in tomato that encodes proteins related to aminotransferases.

The use of non-denaturing Deriphat-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis to fractionate pigment-protein complexes of purple bacteria

The suitability of Deriphat-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis as a method for separating purple bacterial pigment-protein complexes has been tested. When appropriate non-denaturing detergents are used to solubilize chromatophores, this method provides a rapid, easy and microscale procedure for analyzing the composition of the bacterial photosynthetic apparatus with minimal disruption of individual pigment-proteins. Its usefulness is further illustrated by employing it to test for suitable detergents with which to solubilize purple bacterial chromatophores, and as an assay to study variation in the composition of the photosynthetic unit of bacterial cultures grown under different conditions.

Biochemical composition and organization of higher plant photosystem II light-harvesting pigment-proteins

The light-harvesting complex (LHC) of barley photosystem II (PS II) was fractionated by Deriphat-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis into five different pigmented components: one subcomplex (LHC IIb) and four pigment-proteins (LHC IIa, -c, -d, and -e). No loss of chorophyll from the components occurred during fractionation, and violaxanthin is the only photosynthetic pigment that apparently occurs in thylakoids free of association with protein. Each LHC II component has a distinct stoichiometry of neoxanthin, violaxanthin, lutein, chlorophyll a, and chlorophyll b. LHC IIa, -d, and -e were obtained as monomeric pigment-proteins, each of which contained one apoprotein Mr 31,000, 21,000, and 13,000, respectively. LHC IIc was also isolated as a monomer but it contained two poly-peptides of Mr 29,000 and 26,500, whereas the trimeric LHC IIb subcomplex (Mr 72,000) contained three subunits of Mr 28,000, 27,000, and 25,000, but not in equal stoichiometry. How the LHC II subunits are organized in PS II was examined. We isolated PS II subcomplexes which contained four of the LHC II subunits and the core complex (CC II) in unit stoichiometry; the relative strengths of association of the LHC II subunits with CC II are: LHC IIa greater than LHC IIc greater than LHC IIb greater than LHC IId. The LHC II subunits were associated with the native dimeric and not with the derived monomeric form of CC II. In addition, a multimeric LHC II sub-complex composed of the LHC IIa, LHC IIb, and LHC IId pigment-proteins was isolated. We propose that this LHC II subcomplex, which contained the Mr 28,000 and 25,000 subunits but lacked the Mr 27,000 subunit of LHC IIb and CC II. An LHC IIb pigmented fraction of LHC IIb and CC II. An LHC IIb pigmented fraction of Mr 250,000 was isolated which contained only the Mr 28,000 and 27,000 subunits. The LHC IIb subunits in this complex were the most highly phosphorylated on a protein basis. These data together with analyses of the chlorophyll b-less barley chlorina f2 mutant were used to construct a model for the LHC II pigment-protein arrangement in higher plant PS II.

Post-transcriptional control of plastid mRNA accumulation during adaptation of chloroplasts to different light quality environments

The adaptation of germinating spinach seedlings to yellow and red light was studied and compared with plants grown in white light. Spinach chloroplasts isolated from cotyledons and leaves of yellow and white light-grown plants showed similar membrane structures and compositions, while chloroplasts from plants grown in red light have significant adaptive changes. Based on an equal amount of chlorophyll, these changes include a reduction in the number of photosystem I complexes, an increase of photosystem II antenna size, and an increased ratio of stacked to unstacked membranes in red light-adapted chloroplasts. The decrease in the number of photosystem I complexes per unit of chlorophyll in these chloroplasts was qualitatively correlated with an approximately 10-fold decrease in the level of the psaA mRNA encoding the photosystem I 65-kilodalton to 70-kilodalton chlorophyll apoprotein, as well as with a differential decrease in mRNA levels of other photosynthetic proteins. Light quality adaptations do not significantly affect the plastid to nuclear DNA ratio or the overall chloroplast transcription activity. The relative transcriptional activities of 10 plastid genes, as determined by run-on transcription assays, are similar in chloroplasts from cotyledons and leaves of plants grown under the three light qualities. Only the psaA gene shows a 30% to 40% decrease in transcription activity in chloroplasts of plants adapted to red light. This decrease in psaA transcription activity, however, cannot fully account for the decrease of its mRNA level. We conclude, therefore, that post-transcriptional mechanisms are primarily responsible for the control of differential chloroplast mRNA accumulation in light quality adaptations.

Purification and characterization of a light-harvesting chlorophyll-a/b-protein of photosystem I of Lemna gibba

The photosystem I (PSI) complex of Lemna gibba, isolated by deriphat/polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of thylakoids solubilized in glycosidic surfactants, has been fractionated into its two chlorophyll-protein complexes: a core component (CCI) and a light-harvesting component (LHCI), using either non-denaturing gel electrophoresis or ion-exchange chromatography/sucrose gradient centrifugation. Both methods yielded an LHCI component that contained only one apoprotein of approximately 20 kDa. All the chlorophyll b and lutein of the PSI complex is associated with this LHCI preparation. The chlorophyll a/b ratio of this chlorophyll-protein is 2.5, and lutein is essentially the only carotenoid present. While the purified LHCI from Lemna cross-reacts with antibodies raised against spinach LHCPIb of Lam et al. [FEBS Lett. 168, 10-14 (1984)], no cross-reactivity occurred between it and the major light-harvesting chlorophyll-a/b-protein of PSII, LHCII beta. This and a comparison of the amino acid and pigment compositions of the apoproteins of the LHCI and LHCII beta chlorophyll-proteins indicate that these are two distinct but similar chlorophyll-proteins.