Nitric oxide regulates MIP-1alpha expression in primary macrophages and T lymphocytes: implications for anti-HIV-1 response

BACKGROUND

Chemokines and chemokine receptors have been shown to play a critical role in HIV infection. Chemokine receptors have been identified as coreceptors for viral entry into susceptible target cells, and several members of the beta chemokine subfamily of cytokines, MIP-1alpha, MIP-1beta, and RANTES, have been identified as the major human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-suppressive factors produced by activated CD8+ T lymphocytes. In macrophages, HIV-1 infection itself was shown to upregulate the production of MIP-1alpha and MIP-1beta. In the present study, we address the mechanisms by which HIV-1 infection regulates beta chemokine responses in macrophages and lymphocytes.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

To address whether nitric oxide (NO), generated as a consequence of HIV-1 infection, regulates beta chemokine responses in monocyte/macrophages and/or macrophage-depleted peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) these two cell populations were isolated from HIV seronegative donors, placed in culture, and infected with HIV-1 in either the presence or absence of exogenous activators (e.g. lipopolysaccharide, phytohemagglutinin), inhibitors of nitric oxide synthase (NOS), or chemical donors of NO. Cultures were analyzed for beta chemokine responses by ELISA and RNase protection.

RESULTS

LPS-induced MIP-1alpha release is enhanced in HIV-1-infected, as compared to uninfected, monocyte/macrophage cultures, and this enhancing effect is partially blocked by the addition of inhibitors of NOS, and can be reproduced by chemical generators of NO even in the absence of HIV-1 infection. A similar strategy was used to demonstrate a role for NO in HIV-1-mediated induction of MIP-1alpha in unstimulated macrophage cultures. NOS inhibitors also decreased MIP-1alpha and MIP-1beta production by phytohemagglutinin-stimulated monocyte-depleted PBMC cultures.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that NO amplifies MIP-1alpha responses in activated macrophages and lymphocytes, and suggests that this pleiotropic molecule might function as an enhancing signal that regulates secretion of beta chemokines during HIV-1 infection. These findings reveal a novel mechanism by which NO might regulate the anti-HIV activity of immune cells.

Lipopolysaccharide inhibits HIV-1 infection of monocyte- derived macrophages through direct and sustained down-regulation of CC chemokine receptor 5

It is now well established that HIV-1 requires interactions with both CD4 and a chemokine receptor on the host cell surface for efficient infection. The expression of the CCR5 chemokine receptor in human macrophages facilitates HIV-1 entry into these cells, which are considered important in HIV pathogenesis not only as viral reservoirs but also as modulators of altered inflammatory function in HIV disease and AIDS. LPS, a principal constituent of Gram-negative bacterial cell walls, is a potent stimulator of macrophages and has been shown to inhibit HIV infection in this population. We now present evidence that one mechanism by which LPS mediates its inhibitory effect on HIV-1 infection is through a direct and unusually sustained down-regulation of cell-surface CCR5 expression. This LPS-mediated down-regulation of CCR5 expression was independent of de novo protein synthesis and differed from the rapid turnover of these chemokine receptors observed in response to two natural ligands, macrophage-inflammatory protein-1alpha and -1beta. LPS did not act by down-regulating CCR5 mRNA (mRNA levels actually increased slightly after LPS treatment) or by enhancing the degradation of internalized receptor. Rather, the observed failure of LPS-treated macrophages to rapidly restore CCR5 expression at the cell-surface appeared to result from altered recycling of chemokine receptors. Taken together, our results suggest a novel pathway of CCR5 recycling in LPS-stimulated human macrophages that might be targeted to control HIV-1 infection.

Activation-induced resistance of human macrophages to HIV-1 infection in vitro

Cells of the monocyte/macrophage lineage are the first targets of HIV-1 in patients and also serve as reservoirs for the virus during the course of infection. We investigated the effects of cell activation on early events of HIV-1 infection of monocyte-derived macrophages. Addition of LPS, a potent stimulator of macrophages, at the time of infection stimulated entry of HIV-1 into monocyte-derived macrophages, as judged by accumulation of early products of RT, but inhibited the synthesis of late RT products and strongly repressed nuclear import of the viral DNA, resulting in protection from infection. This effect was mediated by the CD14 receptor and involved activation of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway. Disruption of this signaling pathway using a specific inhibitor of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (SB203580) restored HIV-1 infection in the presence of LPS. These results suggest a novel view of the role of macrophage activation in anti-HIV responses of the immune system.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 T-lymphotropic strains enter macrophages via a CD4- and CXCR4-mediated pathway: replication is restricted at a postentry level

The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) laboratory strains adapted to T-cell lines, as well as most syncytium-inducing primary isolates, replicate poorly in macrophages, which, beside CD4(+) T lymphocytes, are major targets of HIV-1. In the present work, we used a semiquantitative PCR-based technique to study viral entry into cells, kinetics of reverse transcription, and translocation of the viral DNA into the nucleus of macrophages infected with different HIV-1 strains. Our results demonstrate that T-lymphotropic strains efficiently enter macrophages. Entry was inhibited by a monoclonal antibody against CD4 and by stromal cell-derived factor 1alpha, a natural ligand of CXCR4, suggesting that both CD4 and CXCR4 act as receptors on macrophages for HIV-1 T-lymphotropic strains. Analysis of the kinetics of reverse transcription and nuclear import revealed that the most pronounced differences between T-lymphotropic and macrophagetropic strains occurred at the level of nuclear translocation of viral DNA, although a delay in reverse transcription was also observed. These results suggest that postentry steps are critical for restricted replication of T-lymphotropic HIV-1 strains in macrophages.

Cell proliferation is not required for productive HIV-1 infection of macrophages

Lentiviruses, including HIV-1, are considered a rare example of retroviruses which do not require cell proliferation for their replication. However, this notion was questioned in several publications where productive HIV-1 infection was found to be restricted to a small fraction of macrophages with proliferative capacity. Since the mode of HIV-1 replication in macrophages is of great clinical relevance, we performed a single-cell analysis of HIV-1 replication and [3H]thymidine incorporation. Our results indicate that while 17% macrophages were detected as HIV-1 DNA-positive 12 hr after infection, only 2% of those cells had incorporated tritium, about the same percentage as in the uninfected cell population. Forty-eight hours after infection, 38% macrophages were HIV-1 DNA-positive and 47% of those had incorporated tritium, while the percentage of tritium-positive uninfected cells did not change (1%). These results demonstrate directly that HIV-1 DNA does not colocalize with [3H]thymidine and support the notion that cell proliferation is not required for HIV-1 infection of macrophages.

The critical role of p38 MAP kinase in T cell HIV-1 replication

BACKGROUND

Replication of HIV-1 in human T lymphocytes requires the activation of host cellular proteins. This study identifies p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) as one such kinase necessary for HIV-1 replication in T cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Primary human T lymphocytes were infected with the LAI strain of HIV-1 and Jurkat cells were infected with the RF strain of HIV-1. HIV replication was measured by reverse transcriptase activity. Cellular expression of endogenous p38 MAPK protein was analyzed using immunoprecipitation. Blockade of p38 MAPK expression was achieved using antisense oligonucleotides to p38 MAPK and the guanylhydrazone compound CNI-1493, an inhibitor of p38 MAPK activation.

RESULTS

HIV-1 infection of both primary human T lymphocytes and a T cell line rapidly activated the cellular p38 MAPK pathway, which remained activated for the duration of the culture. Addition of phosphothioated antisense oligonucleotides to p38 MAPK specifically inhibited viral replication. Blockade of p38 MAPK activation by addition of CNI-1493 also inhibited HIV-1 viral replication of primary T lymphocytes in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Stimulation of p38 MAPK activation did not occur with the addition of heat-inactivated virus, suggesting that viral internalization, and not just membrane binding, is necessary for p38 MAPK activation.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that activation of the p38 MAPK cascade is critical for HIV-1 replication in primary T lymphocytes, and that blockade of this signal transduction pathway may be a novel therapeutic approach to the treatment of HIV-1 infection.

A critical role of nitric oxide in human immunodeficiency virus type 1-induced hyperresponsiveness of cultured monocytes

BACKGROUND

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection leads to a general exhaustion of the immune system. Prior to this widespread decline of immune functions, however, there is an evident hyperactivation of the monocyte/macrophage arm. Increased levels of cytokines and other biologically active molecules produced by activated monocytes may contribute to the pathogenesis of HIV disease both by activating expression of HIV-1 provirus and by direct effects on cytokine-sensitive tissues, such as lung or brain. In this article, we investigate mechanisms of hyperresponsiveness of HIV-infected monocytes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study was performed on monocyte cultures infected in vitro with a monocytetropic strain HIV-1ADA. Cytokine production was induced by stimulation of cultures with lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and measured by ELISA. To study involvement of nitric oxide (NO) in the regulation of cytokine expression, inhibitors of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) or chemical donors of NO were used.

RESULTS

We demonstrate that infection with HIV-1 in vitro primes human monocytes for subsequent activation with LPS, resulting in increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukin 6 (IL-6). This priming effect can be blocked by Ca(2+)-chelating agents and by the NOS inhibitor L-NMMA, but not by hemoglobin. It could be reproduced on uninfected monocyte cultures by using donors of NO, but not cGMP, together with LPS.

CONCLUSIONS

NO, which is expressed in HIV-1-infected monocyte cultures, induces hyperresponsiveness of monocytes by synergizing with calcium signals activated in response to LPS stimulation. This activation is cGMP independent. Our findings demonstrate the critical role of NO in HIV-1-specific hyperactivation of monocytes.

Suppression of proinflammatory cytokines in monocytes by a tetravalent guanylhydrazone

An overproduction of proinflammatory cytokines by activated macrophages/monocytes mediates the injurious sequelae of inflammation, septic shock, tissue injury, and cachexia. We recently synthesized a tetravalent guanylhydrazone compound (CNI-1493) that inhibits cytokine-inducible arginine transport and nitric oxide (NO) production in macrophages, and protects mice against lethal endotoxemia and carrageenan-induced inflammation. During these investigations we noticed that CNI-1493 effectively prevented lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced NO production, even when added in concentrations 10-fold less than required to competitively inhibit L-arginine uptake, suggesting that the suppressive effects of this guanylhydrazone compound might extend to other LPS-induced responses. Here, we report that CNI-1493 suppressed the LPS-stimulated production of proinflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor [TNF], interleukins 1beta and 6, macrophage inflammatory proteins 1alpha and 1beta) from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Cytokine suppression was specific, in that CNI-1493 did not inhibit either the constitutive synthesis of transforming growth factor beta or the upregulation of major histocompatibility complex class II by interferon gamma (IFN-gamma). In contrast to the macrophage suppressive actions of dexamethasone, which are overridden in the presence of IFN-gamma, CNI-1493 retained its suppressive effects even in the presence of IFN-gamma. The mechanism of cytokine-suppressive action by CNI-1493 was independent of extracellular L-arginine content and NO production and is not restricted to induction by LPS. As a selective inhibitor of macrophage activation that prevents TNF production, this tetravalent guanylhydrazone could be useful in the development of cytokine-suppressive agents for the treatment of diseases mediated by overproduction of cytokines.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection alters chemokine beta peptide expression in human monocytes: implications for recruitment of leukocytes into brain and lymph nodes

Two chemokine (chemoattractant cytokines) beta peptides, macrophage inflammatory proteins 1 alpha and 1 beta (MIP-1 alpha and MIP-1 beta), were induced in human monocyte cultures following infection with the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). Induction depended on productive viral infection: not only did the kinetics of MIP-1 peptide induction closely follow those of viral replication, but monocyte cultures inoculated with heat-inactivated virus or infected in the presence of AZT failed to produce these chemokine beta peptides. In addition, HIV infection markedly altered the pattern of beta chemokine expression elicited by tumor necrosis factor (TNF), itself a potent proinflammatory cytokine upregulated during the development of AIDS. Reverse transcription (RT)-PCR and RT-in situ PCR studies on brain tissue from patients with AIDS dementia demonstrated elevated MIP-1 alpha and MIP-1 beta mRNA expression relative to comparable samples from HIV-1-infected patients without dementia. Cells expressing chemokines in HIV-1-infected brains were identified morphologically as microglia and astrocytes. As MIP-1 alpha and MIP-1 beta are potent chemoattractants for both monocytes and specific subpopulations of lymphocytes, this dysregulation of beta chemokine expression may influence the trafficking of leukocytes during HIV infection. These data, taken together, suggest a mechanism by which HIV-1-infected monocytes might recruit uninfected T cells and monocytes to sites of active viral replication or inflammation, notably the brain and lymph nodes.

An inhibitor of macrophage arginine transport and nitric oxide production (CNI-1493) prevents acute inflammation and endotoxin lethality

BACKGROUND

Nitric oxide (NO), a small effector molecule produced enzymatically from L-arginine by nitric oxide synthase (NOS), is a mediator not only of important homeostatic mechanisms (e.g., blood vessel tone and tissue perfusion), but also of key aspects of local and systemic inflammatory responses. Previous efforts to develop inhibitors of NOS to protect against NO-mediated tissue damage in endotoxin shock have been unsuccessful, largely because such competitive NOS antagonists interfere with critical vasoregulatory NO production in blood vessels and decrease survival in endotoxemic animals. Accordingly, we sought to develop a pharmaceutical approach to selectively inhibit NO production in macrophages while sparing NO responses in blood vessels.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The process of cytokine-inducible L-arginine transport and NO production were studied in the murine macrophage-like cell line (RAW 264.7). A series of multivalent guanylhydrazones were synthesized to inhibit cytokine-inducible L-arginine transport. One such compound (CNI-1493) was studied further in animal models of endothelial-derived relaxing factor (EDRF) activity, carrageenan inflammation, and lethal lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge.

RESULTS

Upon activation with cytokines, macrophages increase transport of L-arginine to support the production of NO by NOS. Since endothelial cells do not require this additional arginine transport to produce NO, we reasoned that a competitive inhibitor of cytokine-inducible L-arginine transport would not inhibit EDRF activity in blood vessels, and thus might be effectively employed against endotoxic shock. CNI-1493, a tetravalent guanylhydrazone, proved to be a selective inhibitor of cytokine-inducible arginine transport and NO production, but did not inhibit EDRF activity. In mice, CNI-1493 prevented the development of carrageenan-induced footpad inflammation, and conferred protection against lethal LPS challenge.

CONCLUSIONS

A selective inhibitor of cytokine-inducible L-arginine transport that does not inhibit vascular EDRF responses is effective against endotoxin lethality and significantly reduces inflammatory responses.

Regulation of nitric oxide synthase activity in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1)-infected monocytes: implications for HIV-associated neurological disease

Mononuclear phagocytes (monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells) play major roles in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) persistence and disease pathogenesis. Macrophage antigen presentation and effector cell functions are impaired by HIV-1 infection. Abnormalities of macrophage effector cell function in bone marrow, lung, and brain likely result as a direct consequence of cellular activation and HIV replication. To further elucidate the extent of macrophage dysfunction in HIV-1 disease, a critical activation-specific regulatory molecule, nitric oxide (NO.), which may contribute to diverse pathology, was studied. Little, if any, NO. is produced by uninfected human monocytes. In contrast, infection with HIV-1 increases NO. production to modest, but significant levels (2-5 microM). Monocyte activation (with lipopolysaccharide, tumor necrosis factor alpha, or through interactions with astroglial cells) further enhances NO. production in HIV-infected cells, whereas its levels are diminished by interleukin 4. These results suggest a possible role for NO. in HIV-associated pathology where virus-infected macrophages are found. In support of this hypothesis, RNA encoding the inducible NO synthase (iNOS) was detected in postmortem brain tissue from one pediatric AIDS patient with advanced HIV encephalitis. Corresponding iNOS mRNA was not detected in brain tissue from five AIDS patients who died with less significant brain disease. These results demonstrate that HIV-1 can influence the expression of NOS in both cultured human monocytes and brain tissue. This newly described feature of HIV-macrophage interactions suggests previously unappreciated mechanisms of tissue pathology that result from productive viral replication.

Characterization of HIV1-PAR, a macrophage-tropic strain: cell tropism, virus/cell entry and nucleotide sequence of the envelope glycoprotein

The HIV1-PAR strain, isolated from the cerebrospinal fluid of an HIV1-seropositive man suffering from encephalopathy, replicated well in cord blood lymphocytes, poorly in peripheral blood mononuclear cells, and to different levels in blood-derived macrophage (BDM) cultures prepared from different blood donors. In marked contrast to its replication in primocultures, it did not grow in CEM and U937 cell lines. HIV1-PAR production in BDM was inhibited by more than 90% after treatment with OKT4A or 13B8.2 monoclonal antibodies (mAb) binding to adjacent epitopes of the D1 domain of the CD4 molecules. A lower but significant inhibitory effect was observed after BDM treatment with BL4 and OKT4 mAb, directed to the D2 and D3 domain of the CD4 molecule, respectively. The entire HIV1-PAR envelope glycoprotein gene was amplified by polymerase chain reaction and sequenced. The deduced amino acid sequence of HIV1-PAR gp160 revealed the presence of 847 amino acids and 86% homology with the HIV1 LAV virus prototype. An alignment of the amino acid sequence of the envelope glycoprotein of HIV1-PAR and HIV1-LAV showed that the differences were mostly clustered within the five variable regions. Five CD4-binding domains, the gp120/gp41 cleavage site, the putative gp41 fusion domain and 21 out of the 22 cysteine residues were conserved in both isolates. The results further confirm the macrophage-tropic character of the HIV1-PAR virus.

Distinctive pattern of infection and replication of HIV1 strains in blood-derived macrophages

The macrophage-tropic virus HIV1-PAR, isolated from cerebrospinal fluid of HIV1-seropositive man, induced cytopathic effect accompanied by different magnitude of the virus production in blood-derived macrophages (BDM) obtained from different donors. HIV1-PAR-specific RNA was detected by in situ hybridization in 15 and 66% of BDM producing low and high levels of virus, respectively. In contrast with HIV1-PAR, infection of BDM with two laboratory strains adapted to T-cell lines, HIV1-LAV prototype and HIV1-NDK, a Zairian virus that is highly cytopathic for T-lymphocytes, resulted in a low production of HIV1 p24gag in culture fluid. Expression of HIV1-LAV and HIV1-NDK RNA was detected by in situ hybridization in a maximum of 1% of macrophages. Only HIV1-NDK, and not HIV1-LAV, induced ultrastructural alterations in BDM. In contrast with a striking difference in the production of macrophage-tropic and T-lymphotropic viruses, no significant differences were found in the proportion of macrophages containing retrotranscribed genomes of HIV1-. HIV1 DNA was detected by in situ hybridization in 93, 100, and 80% of macrophages infected with HIV1-PAR, HIV1-LAV, and HIV1-NDK, respectively. A higher level of HIV1 DNA was detected by polymerase chain reaction in the BDM infected with HIV1-PAR than in that infected with HIV1-LAV and HIV1-NDK. The results indicate that both macrophage-tropic as well as T-lymphotropic viruses can enter and retrotranscribe their genomes in a vast majority of macrophages.

Detection and titration of neutralizing antibodies to HIV using an inhibition of the cytopathic effect of the virus on MT4 cells

An assay for determining neutralizing antibodies in sera from individuals infected with HIV was developed. This assay is based on an inhibition of the cytopathic effect observed after HIV superinfection of the HTLV-1-positive cell-line MT4. Only about 10% of asymptomatic seropositive donors exhibit a high titre over 1/500 up to 1/2000 while in 60% of sera, neutralizing antibodies were not detected. The assay reported here can also be used for the comparison of the biological properties of the different strains of HIV.