Hyperplastic and Neoplastic Lesions of the Mammary Gland in Macaques

Macaques provide an important animal model for the study of hormonal agents and their effects on risk biomarkers for breast cancer. A common criticism of this model is that spontaneous breast cancer has rarely been described in these animals. In this report, we characterize 35 mammary gland lesions ranging from ductal hyperplasia to carcinoma in situ and invasive ductal carcinoma in cynomolgus and rhesus macaques. Based on a retrospective analysis, we estimated the lifetime incidence of mammary gland neoplasia in aged female macaques to be about 6%. Hyperplastic lesions (n = 19) occurred segmentally along ducts and included such features as columnar alteration, micropapillary atypia, and fibroadenomatous change. in situ carcinomas (n = 8) included solid, comedo, cribriform, and micropapillary elements, encompassing 4 of the major architectural patterns seen in human lesions. invasive ductal carcinomas (n = 8) were generally solid, with prominent central necrosis and mineralization, often on a background of micropapillary ductal hyperplasia and in situ carcinoma. Cytologic changes of invasive lesions included increased mitoses, nuclear pleomorphism, extensive microinvasion, and stromal desmoplasia. Axillary lymph-node metastases were confirmed in 5 of the 8 invasive carcinomas. on immunohistochemistry, intraductal and invasive carcinomas had increased Ki67/MIB1 and HER2 expression and selective loss of estrogen and progesterone receptors. These findings suggest that breast cancer is an underreported lesion in macaques and highlight unique morphologic and molecular similarities in breast cancer between human and macaque species.

Clinicopathologic analysis of HER-2/neu immunoexpression among various histologic subtypes and grades of osteosarcoma

Overexpression of the HER-2/neu oncogene appears to have prognostic significance in breast cancer. Recently, some have reported a relationship between increased immunohistochemical expression in osteosarcoma and poor clinical outcome. Despite limited data, a pilot trial of Herceptin, which targets the oncogene product, has been initiated for the therapy of some metastatic osteosarcomas (CCG-P9852). Archival formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue obtained from 41 patients diagnosed with osteosarcoma was examined immunohistochemically by 2 antibodies against the HER-2/neu oncogene product: CB-11 (monoclonal, 1/100) and Oncor (polyclonal, 1/200). All but one tumor (case of recurrent dedifferentiated parosteal osteosarcoma) represented primary tumor samples; when applicable, only prechemotherapy biopsies were analyzed. The study sample included the full spectrum of histologic subtypes and grades of osteosarcoma (25 conventional high grade; 3 telangiectatic; 1 small cell; 6 parosteal; 1 periosteal; and 5 low-grade intramedullary). A case of metastatic breast cancer with known overexpression of the HER-2/neu oncogene served as the positive control. Complete membranous positivity, considered prognostically significant in breast cancer, was not seen in any of our osteosarcoma cases. At least focal cytoplasmic positivity was documented in 40 (98%) tumors using the CB11 antibody and in 34 (83%) using the Oncor antibody. The intensity of the cytoplasmic staining (0, 1-3+) did not correlate with histologic subtype/grade, response to chemotherapy (<90% versus > or = 90% necrosis), metastasis, or survival. Immunohistochemical overexpression of the HER-2/neu oncogene, defined as complete membranous positivity, is not present in our series of osteosarcomas. Cytoplasmic positivity is observed in most osteosarcomas, irrespective of histologic subtype/grade, and is not associated with response to preoperative chemotherapy or disease progression.

Prospective trial for the treatment of malignant peritoneal mesothelioma

Malignant peritoneal mesothelioma (MPM) is a rare and often rapidly fatal disease with median survival of 5 to 12 months for untreated cases and 16 months reported after multimodality treatment. We report a prospective clinical treatment study using cytoreductive surgery combined with intraoperative intraperitoneal heated chemotherapy (IPHC) perfusion using mitomycin C for MPM. Twelve patients (11 male with a mean age 51 years) were treated. Seven patients presented with bulky disease and seven with ascites. All underwent exploratory laparotomy with histologically confirmed diagnosis of MPM. Surgical debulking as feasible was performed. Complete gross tumor removal was possible in only one patient. Cytoreduction was followed by a 2-hour closed low-volume IPHC using mitomycin C. One patient died 50 days postoperatively from complications relating to small bowel perforation. Hematologic toxicity of the procedure was minimal. Ascites was controlled in all patients and permanently in 86 per cent of patients presenting with ascites. To date median survival is 34.2 months with median follow-up of 45.2 months. One patient was re-explored for ventral hernia 2 years post-IPHC, had negative peritoneal biopsies, and remains disease-free at 5 years. Given the dismal prognosis associated with MPM the results of treatment with cytoreductive surgery combined with IPHC perfusion are encouraging. The rarity of MPM makes appropriately powered prospective randomized trials unlikely. Therefore, we now offer this approach off protocol; however, further study of this combined modality therapy is warranted.

Cytology of endolymphatic sac tumor

A 77-year-old man presented with decreased mental status and an enhancing partially cystic tumor along the left tentorium on magnetic resonance imaging after mastoidectomy and petrosectomy for an "auditory canal tumor." Smears of the aspirated cyst fluid revealed rare epithelial cell clusters, some with papillary features, foamy macrophages, and blood. The cells were orderly, with fairly bland nuclei and well-defined cell borders. The cell block contained similar epithelium, with cells containing eosinophilic and focally vacuolated cytoplasm, some with pigmented granules resembling hemosiderin. Numerous foam cells were also present. Review of the patient's previous and concurrent resection material showed an endolymphatic sac tumor, a rare neoplasm that arises in the endolymphatic sac in the temporal bone. The previously undescribed cytologic features of this rare neoplasm are discussed.

Gelatinous ascites: a cytohistologic study of pseudomyxoma peritonei in 67 patients

BACKGROUND

Pseudomyxoma peritonei (PMP) is a rare condition characterized by gelatinous ascites. Although the histologic attributes of PMP have been well studied, the cytologic features remain ill defined.

METHODS

We reviewed the peritoneal washings (PW) in 67 patients with PMP to identify cytomorphologic features useful in classifying cases as either disseminated peritoneal adenomucinosis (DPAM) or peritoneal mucinous carcinomatosis (PMCA). Histologic specimens were correlated with the cytologic diagnoses. Correlation between cytologic diagnosis and patient outcome was investigated.

RESULTS

Neoplastic epithelial cells were identified in 63 of 67 PW (94%). Concordance with the histologic diagnosis was obtained in 61 of 63 cases. Of these 36.5% were cytologically classified as DPAM with primary appendiceal neoplasms in 19 cases. Thirty-four of 63 cases (53.9%) were cytologically diagnosed as PMCA based on PW cytology. Most were of appendiceal or colonic origin. Four cases displayed cytologic features of both DPAM and PMCA. Two discordant cases each with a cytologic diagnosis of PMCA had an appendiceal adenoma. Acellular mucin alone was identified in the PW in four cases. Analysis of follow-up data revealed that cases diagnosed as DPAM had a better prognosis than those diagnosed as PMCA.

CONCLUSIONS

Cytomorphologic features of epithelial cells in PW material can accurately categorize cases of PMP as either DPAM or PMCA. Furthermore, this categorization appears to have important prognostic implications.

Sentinel lymph node mapping for carcinoma of the colon: a pilot study

Sentinel lymph node (SLN) mapping has evolved into the standard of care for melanoma and may replace routine node dissection in the treatment of breast cancer. There are few data evaluating sentinel node mapping in patients with cancer of the colon. This trial represents our initial experience with SLN mapping for carcinoma of the colon. SLN mapping was performed in 22 patients most of whom had biopsy-proven adenocarcinoma of the colon. One milliliter of isosulfan blue was injected with a 25-gauge needle into the subserosa at four sites around the edge of the palpable tumor. The SLN was identified visually and excised. A standard lymphadenectomy was then performed. The SLN was analyzed with standard hematoxylin and eosin evaluation. Immunohistochemical techniques for carcinoembryonic antigen and cytokeratin (Imm) were performed if the H&E was negative. The mapping added approximately 5 minutes to the total operative time and no adverse reactions to the dye occurred. A SLN was identified in 20 of 22 cases. In cases with negative lymph nodes the SLN was predictive of all the regional nodes by both H&E and Imm (14 of 14). In patients with positive lymph nodes the SLN was predictive in all cases (six of six). In one case the only node with disease was the SLN, and in this case the diease was identified by only Imm; thus this patient was upstaged. SLN mapping is feasible and safe and can readily be performed in patients with colonic cancer. In conjunction with SLN mapping, Imm techniques may upstage a subset of patients likely to be at increased risk for metastatic disease. Consequently SLN mapping of colon cancer should be evaluated in large prospective trials.

Cytology of angiosarcoma. Findings in fourteen fine-needle aspiration biopsy specimens and one pleural fluid specimen

We report the cytologic features of 15 cases of angiosarcoma from various sites and include 14 fine-needle aspiration (FNA) biopsy specimens and 1 pleural fluid specimen. Six were initial diagnoses with histologic confirmation; an additional case in the liver was an initial diagnosis without tissue confirmation. One case represented lymph node metastasis from a primary prostatic epithelioid angiosarcoma. In 10 cases, immunohistochemical staining for factor VIII-related antigen, CD34, CD31, or Ulex europaeus agglutinin I was performed on the cytology or histology specimen. The aspirates varied in cellularity, and the degree of nuclear atypia ranged from relatively bland in a case of low-grade angiosarcoma of the prostate to highly pleomorphic in a lymph node metastasis from a facial cutaneous angiosarcoma. Vasoformative features such as intracellular RBCs, well-formed vessels, attempts at microacinar/lumen formation, and intracytoplasmic lumens were variably present. The background was bloody in all specimens, with necrosis in rare cases. This cytologic series emphasizes that the cytologic features are heterogeneous but that the diagnosis can be suggested by fine-needle aspiration (FNA) when vasoformative features are present. The diagnosis can be made conclusively by FNA with immunocytochemical confirmation of endothelial differentiation.

The estrogen replacement and atherosclerosis (ERA) study: study design and baseline characteristics of the cohort

The Estrogen Replacement and Atherosclerosis (ERA) trial is a three-arm, randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind trial to evaluate the effects of estrogen replacement therapy (0.625 mg/day oral conjugated estrogen) with or without continuous low-dose progestin (2.5 mg oral medroxyprogesterone acetate/day) versus placebo on progression of atherosclerosis. A total of 309 postmenopausal women at five sites underwent baseline coronary angiography and were randomized. Participants will have repeat coronary angiography after an average of 3.25 years of treatment. The primary outcome of interest will be change in minimum diameter of the major epicardial segments, as assessed by quantitative coronary angiography. The primary aim is to test the hypothesis that either form of hormone therapy will slow the progression or induce regression of coronary atherosclerosis compared to placebo. The secondary aims are to assess the effects of the two treatments versus placebo on endothelial function (measured using flow-mediated vasodilator responses), on several presumed mediators of estrogen's effect on atherosclerosis (i.e., plasma lipids and lipoproteins, blood pressure, glucose metabolism, hemostatic factors, and antioxidant activity), on other factors that influence the development of coronary heart disease (i.e., diet, smoking status, exercise, weight, and health-related quality of life issues), and on clinical cardiovascular events. The ERA trial is the first angiographic endpoint clinical trial to examine the effects of postmenopausal hormone replacement on coronary atherosclerosis in women. It will provide an unparalleled opportunity to determine if either regimen of hormone therapy is effective in slowing the progress of angiographically defined coronary atherosclerosis. This study will complement other estrogen replacement trials, such as the PEPI, HERS, and Women's Health Initiative studies, to provide a more comprehensive examination of the effects of estrogen replacement on cardiovascular risk factors, anatomic and functional manifestations of atherosclerosis, and risk for coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women. Control Clin Trials 2000;21:257-285

Cytoreductive surgery with intraperitoneal hyperthermic chemotherapy for disseminated peritoneal cancer of gastrointestinal origin

No standard effective treatment exists for peritoneal carcinomatosis of gastrointestinal origin. The pharmacokinetic advantage of intraperitoneal chemotherapy and the synergy of heat and certain anticancer agents have prompted researchers to investigate intraperitoneal hyperthermic chemotherapy in treating disseminated peritoneal cancers. We have conducted a large Phase II trial to determine the safety and efficacy of aggressive cytoreductive surgery and intraperitoneal hyperthermic chemotherapy (IPHC) in treating peritoneal carcinomatosis of gastrointestinal origin. Patients with disseminated peritoneal carcinomatosis of gastrointestinal origin with or without malignant ascites were eligible. After aggressive surgical debulking, patients were administered a 2-hour heated (40.5 degrees C) intraperitoneal perfusion with mitomycin C. The major response variable monitored was overall survival. Patients were assessed for toxicity after IPHC administration using the National Cancer Institute Common Toxicity Criteria. Eighty-four patients with peritoneal carcinomatosis of gastrointestinal origin were evaluated for survival and toxicity (colon, n = 38; appendix, n = 22; stomach, n = 19; other gastrointestinal, n = 5). Thirty-nine (46%) patients had malignant ascites at the time of therapy. The operative mortality (30-day) was 6 per cent. Hematologic toxicity was the most common toxicity but was of mild to moderate severity (7 and 4% of patients had grade 3/4 white blood cell or platelet toxicity, respectively). The overall median survival was 14.3 months. The median survival of patients with peritoneal carcinomatosis of appendiceal, colorectal, and gastric origins were 31.1+, 14.6, and 10.1 months, respectively. Significant differences in median survival were seen in patients without and with malignant ascites (27.7 vs 7.6 months; P = 0.0004) and R0/R1 (complete gross tumor resection) versus R2 (gross residual tumor) surgical resection status (28.5+ vs 10.8 months, P = 0.0002). These data suggest that aggressive cytoreductive surgery with IPHC using mitomycin C is safe and effective in treating peritoneal carcinomatosis of gastrointestinal origin. Additional studies and broader applications of this treatment are encouraged.

Diagnosis and subclassification of primary and recurrent lymphoma. The usefulness and limitations of combined fine-needle aspiration cytomorphology and flow cytometry

The primary diagnosis of non-Hodgkin lymphoma/leukemia by fine-needle aspiration (FNA) is still controversial and relatively underused. We evaluated our FNA experience with lymphomas using the revised European-American classification of lymphoid neoplasms to determine the reliability of FNA when combined with flow cytometry in the diagnosis of lymphoma, the types of diagnoses made, and the limitations of this technique. Slides and reports from all lymph node and extranodal FNAs performed during the period January 1, 1993, to December 31, 1998, with a diagnosis of lymphoma or benign lymphoid process were reviewed. There were 290 aspirates from 275 patients. These included 158 cases of lymphoma, of which 86 (54.4%) were primary and 72 (45.6%) were recurrent. There were 44 aspirates suggestive of lymphoma and 81 benign/reactive diagnoses. With diagnoses suggestive of lymphoma considered as positive for lymphoma, levels of diagnostic sensitivity and specificity were 95% and 85%, respectively. Specificity was 100% when only definitive diagnoses of lymphoma were considered. Clearly, FNA and immunophenotyping by flow cytometry are complementary and obviate a more invasive open biopsy for many patients with lymphadenopathy.

The clinical application and cost analysis of fine-needle aspiration biopsy in the diagnosis of mass lesions in sarcoidosis

BACKGROUND

Sarcoidosis is a prevalent disease of unknown cause characterized by granulomatous inflammation that often creates deep and/or superficial mass lesions. Tissue samples are considered the "gold standard" in diagnosis; however, it is a medically treated disease. We analyzed the utility and relative cost-effectiveness of fine-needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB) in the clinical investigation of patients with both suspected and unsuspected sarcoidosis.

METHODS

All FNAB cases with sarcoidosis either as the cytologic diagnosis or mentioned as part of the differential diagnosis were retrospectively reviewed for clinical history, follow-up, cytologic features, and surgical pathology findings. Comparative analysis of cost of FNAB and excisional biopsy were also made.

RESULTS

Thirty-two FNABs in 28 patients included 17 women and 11 men. Anatomic sites included lymph node (n = 17), lung (n = 5), salivary gland (n = 8), and liver (n = 2). Sarcoidosis had already been diagnosed or was a clinical consideration prior to FNAB in 14 cases. Chest radiograph showed abnormal findings in 19 cases. Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) was measured in seven patients and was elevated in four. All aspirates showed granulomatous inflammation; in 22 patients, special stains or cultures for microorganisms were negative. Simultaneous or subsequent excisional biopsies confirmed the FNAB findings in 17 patients. Institutional ratios of excisional biopsy to FNAB in the diagnosis of sarcoidosis ranged from 4 to 19:1. The cost of FNAB was only 12.5 to 50% that of tissue biopsy.

CONCLUSIONS

FNAB appears to be underutilized in the diagnosis of sarcoidosis. When used in conjunction with radiologic and laboratory data, FNAB may be a reliable and cost-effective method of diagnosis, especially in patients with an established diagnosis of sarcoidosis.

Cytomorphologic features of Merkel cell carcinoma in fine needle aspiration biopsies. A study of two atypical cases

OBJECTIVE

To report atypical cytomorphologic features in fine needle aspiration biopsies (FNABs) from two cases of Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC), a primary neuroendocrine neoplasm of skin.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective review of FNABs with histologic correlation from six patients with MCC and a report of findings from two whose smears showed atypical features.

RESULTS

Typically the aspirates produce highly cellular smears of loosely clustered and individual, relatively monomorphic, small tumor cells with round to oval, regularly contoured nuclei. In two of our cases, the tumor cell nuclei exhibited a spectrum of pleomorphism ranging from moderately complex nuclear membranes with cleaves, indentations and protrusions in one case to large, markedly bizarre, convoluted nuclei and multinucleate tumor cells in the extreme case. Both cases were primary neoplasms, and the diagnosis was based on clinical, histologic and immunohistochemical data. Additionally, electron microscopy was performed on the tumor with bizarre nuclei and demonstrated rare, dense core neurosecretory granules and paranuclear bundles of intermediate filaments.

The cytomorphology of pleuropulmonary blastoma

Pleuropulmonary blastoma is a rare, primitive primary neoplasm of the thorax in young children. The tumor, which is often but not always associated with cystic lung lesions, may arise in pulmonary parenchyma, the mediastinum, and pleura. Histologically, it is characterized by a biphasic neoplastic population of undifferentiated-appearing small round cells and larger spindle-shaped cells. A proportion of these cancers may also manifest more specific mesenchymal differentiation. In contrast to the pulmonary blastoma of adults, a malignant epithelial component does not occur. We present herein the third known case of a fine needle aspiration biopsy of a pleuropulmonary blastoma in a 5-year-old girl. The smears were moderately cellular and included an admixture of the characteristic small ovoid blastemal elements and scattered spindled mesenchymal tumor cells.

The role of fine-needle aspiration cytology in the evaluation of metastatic clear cell tumors

BACKGROUND

Clear cell tumors (CCTs) occur as primary neoplasms in a number of anatomic sites. Due to their overlapping morphologic features, these tumors can be challenging for the cytologist, particularly when they present as metastatic lesions.

METHODS

Forty-nine fine-needle aspirations (FNA) of metastatic CCTs from 46 patients (age range, 29-87 years; mean, 64 years) were reviewed retrospectively. In addition to the routine smears and cell block preparations, ancillary studies were performed in selected cases. Clinical and/or histologic follow-up was obtained for all patients.

RESULTS

The sites of the 49 FNAs were the lung (12 cases), lymph nodes (9 cases), liver (7 cases), bone (7 cases), soft tissue (4 cases), pelvis (2 cases), adrenal gland (2 cases), pancreas (1 case), thyroid (2 cases), peritoneum (2 cases), and vagina (1 case). Twenty-seven patients had a previous history of a CCT and the FNA material in these cases was consistent with a metastasis. The primary anatomic sites in these cases were the kidney (20 cases), ovary (2 cases), salivary gland (1 case), and cervix (1 case). On light microscopy, these tumors had a similar appearance and often were indistinguishable. Nineteen patients did not have a prior history of malignancy; 12 of these patients had a concurrent renal mass and the diagnosis of metastatic renal cell carcinoma was made. The anatomic site of origin of seven of the ten remaining tumors (kidney [2 cases], lung [2 cases], ovary [1 case], germ cell [1 case], and endometrium [1 case]) was established through immunocytochemical studies of cytologic material and clinical follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

FNA plays an important role in the diagnosis of metastatic CCT. Cytologic examination, ancillary studies, and clinical information can establish the anatomic site of origin in the majority (95%) of cases, precluding the necessity of obtaining additional tissue. Cancer (Cancer Cytopathol)

Cytology of primary pulmonary mucoepidermoid and adenoid cystic carcinoma. A report of four cases

BACKGROUND

Mucoepidermoid and adenoid cystic carcinomas are very rare primary pulmonary neoplasms that can be classified under the broader heading of salivary gland-like neoplasms (SGN). Both entities need to be considered in the cytologic differential diagnosis of lung tumors. We reviewed cytologic findings in primary pulmonary neoplasms diagnosed at our institution during the time period 1981 to the present along with outside consultation cases.

CASES

Three cases of primary mucoepidermoid carcinoma and one case of primary adenoid cystic carcinoma of the lung were diagnosed based on cytology during the period examined. Patient ages were 16, 25, 47 and 78 years, respectively. The mucoepidermoid cytology specimens were composed of three cell types, mucinous, squamous and intermediate cells, at times associated with extracellular mucin. The adenoid cystic carcinoma consisted of small, uniform cells with dark nuclei, scant cytoplasm and associated, acellular balls of basement membrane material.

CONCLUSION

The differential diagnosis for primary pulmonary neoplasms needs to include the rare SGN. Cytologic features of adenoid cystic carcinoma are diagnostic; those of mucoepidermoid carcinoma are at least suggestive.

Interobserver variability of a Papanicolaou smear diagnosis of atypical glandular cells of undetermined significance

The interobserver variability of a Papanicolaou smear diagnosis of atypical glandular cells of undetermined significance (AGUS) has not been measured. Four expert cytopathologists retrospectively reclassified 100 smears originally diagnosed as AGUS; on follow-up examination, 54 had a clinically significant lesion and 46 had a benign lesion. The mean sensitivity and specificity of reclassification were 86% and 21%, respectively. The kappa statistic for pairwise cytopathologist comparison varied from 0.16 to 0.27. In 45% of cases the cytopathologists all used different Bethesda System diagnoses, and in no case did all the cytopathologists use the same diagnosis. There was little agreement on which cytologic criteria were important in separating clinically significant and benign lesions. We conclude the following: interobserver agreement in reclassifying AGUS lesions is very poor; the AGUS category is poorly understood, and there is no agreement on diagnostic cytologic criteria; and when reclassifying slides, cytopathologists make a number of false-negative diagnoses.

Histopathologic practices for esophageal biopsy specimens: survey results and implications for surveillance in patients with Barrett's esophagus

A clinically valuable interpretation of esophageal biopsy specimens begins with well-prepared histologic sections. This may be especially true for reflux esophagitis and Barrett's glandular dysplasia. To determine exactly which histologic procedures are used by experts in gastrointestinal pathology, a checklist survey was mailed to 50 members of the Gastrointestinal Pathology Society. Responses were received from 42 (84%). Formalin, used 80% of the time, is overwhelmingly the most popular fixative. Orientation of biopsy material before further processing is performed in 36% of the institutions, most often (53%) by an endoscopy technician. The most frequently used (60%) substrate for orientation is filter material. The most common (83%) routine procedure uses only H&E staining. Others routinely add a mucin reaction to the H&E. Eleven different practices for sectioning are used; the most common (43%) is serial step sectioning at 3 levels. One third of the responders had a formal surveillance program for patients with Barrett's esophagus. For esophageal biopsy specimens, a broad spectrum of histologic practices exists. Trends for the more complex histotechnologic procedures to be used by those involved in screening for dysplastic Barrett's epithelium are evident.

Congenital toxoplasmosis: diagnosis by exfoliative cytology

Toxoplasmosis, caused by the intracellular protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, has as its major routes of acquisition either ingestion (of the cyst or oocyte) or transplacental infection (by trophozoites). Transplacental transmission occurs to the fetus in utero or to the newborn at vaginal delivery. Maternally acquired infections can infect the embryo as early as the 7th week of gestation. It has been estimated that 15-17% of maternal infections acquired between the 7th and 14th weeks of gestation are transmitted to the embryo (Lynfield R, Eaton RB., Teratology 1995;52:176-180.). We present a 7-wk-old white male, delivered at 38 wk of gestation, who shortly after birth was found to have hepatosplenomegaly and anemia; he developed liver failure and ascites with persistent anemia during the first week of life. After an extensive, but nondiagnostic, work-up, a paracentesis was performed which led to a diagnosis of congenital toxoplasmosis. This case demonstrates the utility of exfoliative cytology in determining the cause of neonatal ascites, especially of an infectious etiology. To our knowledge, this represents the first reported case of Toxoplasma gondii diagnosed by exfoliative cytology in a pediatric patient.

PET scanning in head and neck oncology: a review

BACKGROUND

The objective of this study was to review and describe the usage of fluorine-labeled deoxyglucose (FDG) and positron emission tomography (PET) in the diagnosis and management of head and neck cancer.

METHODS

Several prospective series,-including 159 newly diagnosed and previously untreated and 23 previously irradiated head and neck squamous cell carcinoma patients initially seen at the Wake Forest University Medical Center and evaluated by clinical examination, conventional computed tomography/ magnetic resonance imaging (CT/MRI) scans, PET scans, and histopathologic studies,-were reviewed and the findings summarized for comparison of the correct differentiation of primary and metastatic cancers and for postirradiation tumor clearance in a subsegment of those cases.

RESULTS

Positron emission tomography scanning using a fluorine-labeled deoxyglucose (FDG) radiotracer proved as reliable as conventional scanning for primary and metastatic tumor identification. Compared with clinical examination, PET was better for identification of nodal metastatic tumors but poorer for small primary tumors. For previously irradiated patients treated at least 4 months before the test, PET scanning was clearly superior to clinical examination and conventional imaging in differentiating tumor recurrence from soft-tissue irradiation effects.

CONCLUSIONS

Fluorine-labeled deoxyglucose-PET scanning is comparable to conventional imaging of head and neck cancers in detecting primary and metastatic carcinoma. Lack of anatomic detail remains its major drawback. Currently, its greatest role is in the evaluation of the postradiotherapy patient.

Experimental study of acid burden and acute oesophagitis

BACKGROUND

The relationship of the pH of oesophageal refluxate and its pepsin content to injury of oesophageal mucosa remains unclear. A study was made of the earliest morphological alterations in the oesophageal mucosa secondary to varying concentrations of hydrochloric acid with or without pepsin.

METHODS

Adult cats had varying concentrations of acid with and without 1 per cent porcine pepsin infused into the oesophagus through a paediatric feeding tube placed 5 cm above the oesophagogastric junction at a rate of 1 ml/min for 30 min. At autopsy 24 h later, the oesophagus was removed intact and scored by an expanded modification of a previously published histopathological scoring system. This included estimates of the intensity and distribution of four morphological features: basal cell hyperplasia (BCH), intraepithelial leucocytes (IELs), subepithelial leucocytes and ulcers. Each of these four categories was scored from 0 to 4, with a maximum injury score of 16.

RESULTS

Mean(s.e.m.) scores were as follows: pH 1, 15.0(1.0); pH 1 with pepsin, 13.3(1.4); pH 2, 15.3(0.7); pH 2 with pepsin, 11.7(1.1); pH 3, 1.8(1.6); pH 3 with pepsin, 3.7(1.9); pH 4 with or without pepsin, 0.6(0.2). Differences between pH 3 and 4 versus pH 1 and 2 were significant (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Injury to the oesophagus is more dependent on the pH of refluxate than on the presence of pepsin. Peptic injury appears to occur at a critical threshold of acid burden (pH < 3) as opposed to a graded level of injury based on a pH scale.

The cytomorphologic features of sclerosing mucoepidermoid carcinoma of the thyroid gland with eosinophilia

Sclerosing mucoepidermoid carcinoma with eosinophilia (SMECE) is a recently described carcinoma of the thyroid gland associated with Hashimoto's thyroiditis and considered to have a relatively indolent clinical course. We describe two patients with SMECE and its aspiration and exfoliative cytologic features. Patient 1 was a 39-year-old woman with a goiter for many years. Examination of the lobectomy specimen revealed SMECE associated with Hashimoto's disease; 4 months later a total thyroidectomy was performed, metastases were found in nine lymph nodes in the neck. Two years later, fine-needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB) of a paritracheal mass revealed recurrent tumor. After 2 more years, two pleural fluid samples contained metastatic carcinoma with eosinophils. Patient 2 was a 61-year-old man with thyromegaly and vocal cord paralysis. The FNAB revealed a poorly differentiated carcinoma. The subsequent thyroidectomy demonstrated SMECE. Two years later, an FNAB of a vertebral mass demonstrated metastatic mucoepidermoid carcinoma. In all specimens, malignant cells with definite glandular and squamoid differentiation were present in small cohesive aggregates; eosinophils associated with the tumor cells were present in all specimens.

Another quality assurance issue--amended reports: what do we really know about them?

The Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendment (CLIA) of 1988 requires that if a cytology/histology discrepancy is discovered which is significant and affects patient care, an amended report should be issued (Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments, Fed Reg 1992;57:7169). Since little is known about such amended reports, a survey was developed to assess how individuals handle discrepancies. The Quality Assurance Task Force from the Papanicolaou Society of Cytopathology created a survey to assess these methods and sent it to all of their members. Fifty-one individuals responded to the survey. Methods vary widely among institutions. On average, 107 cytologic/histologic correlations are performed each month with the discovery of approximately 2 major and 11 minor discrepancies. Thirty-nine responders utilize written amended reports and telephone clinicians when a major discrepancy is found. Thirty-eight individuals indicated that their place of employment has a written policy concerning discrepancies. Time spent in quality assurance issues averaged 8 hr per wk for cytotechnologists and 3 hr per wk for pathologists. Although amended reports are required when significant discrepancies are revealed, a standard practice does not exist.

Thymic carcinoid. Report of a case with diagnosis by fine needle aspiration biopsy

BACKGROUND

Fine needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB) affords a less expensive, less morbid approach to masses within the complex anatomy of the mediastinum as opposed to surgical biopsy. Given the current state of computed tomography guidance and the available cell block preparations and ancillary studies, definitive diagnosis of mediastinal tumors is possible.

CASE

A 19-year-old male presented with weight loss and muscle weakness. Computed tomography revealed an anterior superior mediastinal mass with attachment to the posterior sternum and anterior aorta. FNAB yielded hyperchromatic cells with densely clumped chromatin and prominent nucleoli. These were present as single cells and clusters. Cell block preparations were studied with immunoperoxidase methods and were strongly positive for chromogranin and glucagon, supporting the diagnosis of carcinoid tumor. Surgical excision yielded a 7-cm, unencapsulated, red-brown tumor with medium-sized cells with oval to round nuclei, scant and granular cytoplasm and coarse "salt and pepper" chromatin with prominent nucleoli. The cells were arranged in islands and bands and were associated with prominent capillaries and dense, collagenous septae. Immunoperoxidase and electron microscopy demonstrated numerous intracytoplasmic, nonspecific neurosecretory granules and positivity for somatostatin, synaptophysin, cytokeratin and chromogranin.

CONCLUSION

FNAB affords an accurate and timely diagnosis of an anterior mediastinal tumor without the necessity for open biopsy and also offers accurate surgical planning and decreased morbidity.

Fine-needle aspiration cytomorphology of clear-cell hepatocellular carcinoma

The clear-cell type of hepatocellular carcinoma is an uncommon variant of hepatoma that can be confused with other clear-cell malignancies. We report on 4 cases of clear-cell hepatocellular carcinoma diagnosed by computed tomography (CT)-guided fine-needle aspiration (FNA) biopsy. All 4 patients were men with a median age of 71 yr (age range 66-76 yr). Three patients presented with a solitary liver mass and no known extrahepatic primary malignancies. The fourth patient, previously diagnosed with non-A, non-B posttransfusion hepatitis, presented with an irregular firm liver and abnormal serum liver function tests. Cytologically, all cases were characterized by hypercellular smears consisting of loosely cohesive groups and individually scattered malignant cells demonstrating anisonucleosis, nuclear hyperchromasia and irregularity, prominent nucleoli, and abundant finely vacuolated to clear cytoplasm. Immunocytochemical staining in three cases revealed focal positivity of the malignant cells for cytokeratin (AE1/3) and alpha-fetoprotein in one case. Electron microscopy (EM) was performed in all cases and revealed ultrastructural features consistent with hepatocellular differentiation. The cytologic differentiation of clear-cell hepatocellular carcinoma from metastatic clear-cell malignancies of renal, ovarian, and adrenal origin, among others, is presented. In addition, EM and immunocytochemistry study of the aspirated material can aid in establishing the correct diagnosis, thereby facilitating appropriate clinical management.

Spindle-cell lesions of the mediastinum: diagnosis by fine-needle aspiration biopsy

Spindle cells seen in fine-needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB) of the mediastinal lesions can be a component of a wide variety of benign and malignant conditions. Few of these conditions, however, are described in the FNA cytopathology literature. This review discusses the cytopathologic features, differential diagnoses, and potential pitfalls of a variety of lesions with a significant component of spindle cells encountered in mediastinal FNAB. The cytopathology files from four institutions were searched for cases of mediastinal FNAB containing a spindle-cell component that was a key or predominant cytologic feature of the diagnostic specimen. The cytomorphologic features of these cases were analyzed, and their differential features are discussed. Of 196 mediastinal FNABs, 22 (11%) were lesions with significant spindle-cell component: granulomatous inflammation (four); benign nerve sheath tumor (four); thymic cyst (two); spindle-cell thymoma (two); large-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma with sclerosis (two); nodular sclerosing Hodgkin's disease (two); liposarcoma (two); spindle-cell squamous carcinoma possibly arising in a teratoma (one); unspecified high-grade sarcoma (one); spindle-cell malignant melanoma (one); and nonspecific fibrous tissue (one). The cytologic features of each lesion were analyzed as an aid for accurate classification. These findings were correlated with radiologic and clinical information when available. The value of ancillary studies performed on aspirated material in selected cases was also reviewed. FNA of mediastinal lesions with significant spindle-cell morphology represents an infrequent and heterogeneous group of entities that may pose significant diagnostic challenges. This review presents the salient cytopathologic features of various spindle-cell lesions of the mediastinum with particular emphasis on differential diagnosis and pitfalls. The pathologist must use caution when interpreting these lesions and ancillary studies may be of significant value in selected cases.

Diagnostic pitfalls in fine-needle aspiration biopsy of the mediastinum

A retrospective review of 189 fine-needle aspiration (FNA) biopsies of the mediastinum from four university medical centers was performed. Review of Diff-Quick- and Papanicolaou-stained direct smears was performed from a series of 189 FNA biopsies along with surgical pathology correlation obtained in 42% of the cases. There were 28 (14.8%) nondiagnostic or unsatisfactory for diagnosis cases. Of the satisfactory FNA specimens with histologic correlation, 12 cases (6%) were discordant. These errors primarily involve subclassification of small-cell malignancies involving the mediastinum, including a misdiagnosis of small-cell carcinoma for lymphoma. Large-cell lesions that were problematic included the accurate diagnosis of Hodgkin's lymphoma including the separation from non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Large-cell lymphoma with sclerosis was misinterpreted in two cases due to distortion of cells by the mesenchymal tissue and sparsely cellular smears. In two cases classification of primary germ-cell tumors and separation from metastatic carcinoma was a problem. In general, FNA of the mediastinum is an accurate procedure, but can be challenging in a minority of cases due to sparse cellularity of the lesions and accurate classification of a variety of neoplasms that occur in this region. These 12 discordant cases serve as the basis of our report.

Fine-needle aspiration biopsy of gouty tophi: lessons in cost-effective patient management

Gout, a disease resulting from the effects of hyperuricemia and a crystal-induced arthropathy, may produce soft tissue masses (tophi) which mimick neoplasia clinically and radiographically. We have recently diagnosed three cases of gouty tophus, two of which were clinically suspected to represent sarcomas, by fine-needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB) after extensive radiologic and clinical evaluation. There were two women and one man. aged 71, 73, and 50 yr, with palpable soft tissue masses that involved the right forearm, right hand, and right foot, respectively, Biopsies were obtained by using 25-gauge needles without the aid of general anesthesia. Morphologically, aggregates and disassociated slender, needle-shaped crystals were abundant and easily recognized on both Diff-Quik and Papanicolaou stains. By using a polarizing microscope with a first-order red compensator, the crystals showed negative birefringence, characteristic of sodium urate. Benign-appearing histiocytes, foreign-body-type giant cells, neutrophils, and amorphous debris were scattered among the diagnostic crystals. The diagnosis of gouty tophus can be easily established with FNAB in conjunction with compensated polarizing microscopy. Application of FNAB in the initial evaluation of appropriate soft-tissue masses provides a cost-effective diagnostic method, preventing more costly and often unnecessary clinical and radiologic tests.

Chondroblastoma of bone: use of fine-needle aspiration biopsy and potential diagnostic pitfalls

Chondroblastoma of bone is a well-characterized entity. When the radiographic features are classic and the lesion is present in typical locations (i.e., epiphysis of a long bone), the diagnosis is often easily established by fine-needle aspiration biopsy and/or surgical curettage. Tumors in unusual locations, in older patients, or when complicated by aneurysmal bone cysts may pose more diagnostic difficulty. We report four examples (three primary and one-recurrent) of chondroblastoma of bone diagnosed by fine-needle aspiration biopsy. All patients were men, ranging from 18 to 28 yr of age. Sites of involvement included the acromion process of the scapula, left humerus, right ischium, and left distal femur. Three of the tumors were diagnosed as chondroblastoma on fine-needle aspiration cytology; the fourth case, involving the scapula, consisted mostly of a large aneurysmal bone cyst and remained unrecognized until surgical curettage was performed. Typical-appearing chondroblasts were present in three of the cases; osteoclast-type giant cells were observed in all four cases. Matrix material consistent with chondroid was also identified in all cases. We believe that in the absence of inflammatory cells, the presence of classic-appearing chondroblasts, even without chondroid matrix, is sufficient for a diagnosis of chondroblastoma of bone.

Surveillance of patients with Barrett's esophagus for dysplasia and cancer with balloon cytology

BACKGROUND & AIMS

A less costly cancer surveillance method for Barrett's esophagus is desirable. The aim of this study was to compare nonendoscopic balloon cytology with biopsy and brush cytology for detecting dysplasia and carcinoma in patients with Barrett's esophagus.

METHODS

Patients in a surveillance program underwent balloon cytology before endoscopy with biopsy and brush cytology. Results of cytology were compared with those of histology.

RESULTS

Adequate columnar epithelium was obtained in 52 of 63 (83%) patients with balloon cytology and 59 of 61 (97%) with brush cytology. Balloon cytology obtained abnormal cells in 6 of 8 patients with adenocarcinoma, 2 of 2 patients with high-grade dysplasia, and 2 of 8 patients with low-grade dysplasia. Sensitivity of balloon cytology for high-grade dysplasia or carcinoma was 80% but only 25% for low-grade dysplasia. No patients without dysplasia or carcinoma had abnormal cells. Brush cytology was abnormal in all 11 patients with high-grade dysplasia or carcinoma but only 2 of 9 patients with low-grade dysplasia (sensitivity, 22%). Two of 39 patients without dysplasia had abnormal cells (specificity, 95%). Balloon cytology cost was sixfold less than endoscopy with biopsy.

CONCLUSIONS

Balloon cytology detected 80% of patients with high-grade dysplasia or carcinoma when sampling was adequate. Brush cytology data suggest that a more abrasive balloon may improve balloon cytology sensitivity. The potential cost savings of balloon cytology compared with endoscopic cancer surveillance in Barrett's esophagus support further studies of this technique.

Changing cytologic and histologic utilization patterns in the diagnosis of 515 primary lung malignancies

BACKGROUND

Over the last decade, the specimen types used to diagnose primary pulmonary malignancies at the authors' institution have changed in terms of their frequency of submission.

METHODS

The authors reviewed pathologic findings in 216 cases of primary lung carcinoma diagnosed during the years 1983-1984 (earlier period) and compared these with the findings in 299 cases diagnosed during the years 1993-1994 (later period).

RESULTS

The total number of transbronchial fine-needle aspirates (TBNA) increased from 13 to 206 (P < 0.0001), the total number of sputum (SP) samples declined from 236 to 36 (P < 0.0001), and the total number of forceps endobronchial biopsy (FBX) specimens increased from 61 to 119 (P = 0.0023) between the earlier period and the later period. The positivity rate of some specimen types was similar for these two periods (transthoracic percutaneous fine-needle aspirate [PFNA], 95% and 97%; bronchial washings, 61% and 60%), but the positivity of others improved by a statistically nonsignificant degree (bronchial brushings, 61-71%; FBX, 59-69%). The positivity of TBNA was 57% in 1993-1994. The collective positivity of bronchoscopic cytology specimens was significantly higher than simultaneous FBX during both periods (P = 0.0032), but bronchoscopic histology and cytology were complementary. The positivity of fiberoptic bronchoscopy (FOB) improved significantly, from 72% in 1983-1984 to 85% in 1993-1994 (P = 0.0059). During both periods, an equivalent proportion of patients were subjected to each of 3 major invasive sampling procedures (FOB, 70%; PFNA, 20%; open surgical biopsy, 10%). Fifteen patients were diagnosed by SP cytology without an invasive procedure in 1983-1984, but none were diagnosed by SP cytology in 1993-1994.

CONCLUSIONS

TBNA and increased utilization of FBX have displaced postbronchoscopy SP examination, generating higher positivity for FOB. Bronchoscopic cytology and histology were complementary, but radiologically guided fine-needle aspiration was the procedure with the highest positivity.

nm23--relationship to the metastatic potential of breast carcinoma cell lines, primary human xenografts, and lymph node negative breast carcinoma patients

BACKGROUND

Since the discovery of nm23 (nonmetastatic) by Steeg et al. in 1988, a number of tumor cohort studies have shown an inverse relationship between the levels of expression of the nm23-H1 protein and disease aggressiveness and tumor metastatic potential.

METHODS

The relationship between the expression of nm23 protein and the metastatic potential of human breast carcinoma was analyzed in cell lines, xenografts, and in a retrospective lymph node negative breast carcinoma population. The lymph node negative breast carcinoma study was comprised of 40 patients: 19 with nonrecurrent and 21 with recurrent disease. The 40 patients were matched according to age, cathepsin D, tumor size, percent S-phase, DNA ploidy, steroid receptor status, and tumor grade. Nm23-H1 protein levels in cell lines and xenografts were analyzed quantitatively using Western blot analyses and semiquantitatively in tissue sections using immunocytochemistry. Immunocytochemical analysis of lymph node negative breast tumors was graded as the percent of tumor staining positive for nm23 and the intensity of staining. The metastatic potentials of the cell lines and xenografts were assessed as the ability to form metastatic lesions in nude mice. In the lymph node negative breast carcinoma patients, the metastatic potential was characterized as the incidence of breast carcinoma recurrence.

RESULTS

The MCF-7 cell line expressed four- and tenfold higher levels of nm23-H1 than the highly metastatic MDA-MB-435 and MDA-MB-231 cells, respectively. Among the xenografts and cell lines, there was an inverse correlation between nm23-H1 expression and metastatic potential in athymic nude mice (correlation coefficient [R] = -0.51). The differences between the levels of nm23-H1 among the metastatic and nonmetastatic cell lines and xenografts were not statistically significant. Statistical analyses indicated that neither the intensity nor the percent of tumor staining positive for nm23 expression was correlated to the recurrence of breast carcinoma in the lymph node negative patient population that had been matched for other clinical prognostic markers.

CONCLUSIONS

There was an inverse correlation (R = 0.51) between the levels of nm23-H1 expression in cell lines and xenografts and the metastatic potential in nude mice. In the retrospective lymph node negative breast carcinoma population, no clear association was demonstrated between the expression of nm23 and breast carcinoma recurrence. This observation suggests the nm23 expression does not predict outcome in lymph node negative breast carcinoma patients.

Chondroblastoma of bone: use of fine-needle aspiration biopsy and potential diagnostic pitfalls

Chondroblastoma of bone is a well-characterized entity. When the radiographic features are classic and the lesion is present in typical locations (i.e., epiphysis of a long bone), the diagnosis is often easily established by fine-needle aspiration biopsy and/or surgical curettage. Tumors in unusual locations, in older patients, or when complicated by aneurysmal bone cysts may pose more diagnostic difficulty. We report four examples (three primary and one-recurrent) of chondroblastoma of bone diagnosed by fine-needle aspiration biopsy. All patients were men, ranging from 18 to 28 yr of age. Sites of involvement included the acromion process of the scapula, left humerus, right ischium, and left distal femur. Three of the tumors were diagnosed as chondroblastoma on fine-needle aspiration cytology; the fourth case, involving the scapula, consisted mostly of a large aneurysmal bone cyst and remained unrecognized until surgical curettage was performed. Typical-appearing chondroblasts were present in three of the cases; osteoclast-type giant cells were observed in all four cases. Matrix material consistent with chondroid was also identified in all cases. We believe that in the absence of inflammatory cells, the presence of classic-appearing chondroblasts, even without chondroid matrix, is sufficient for a diagnosis of chondroblastoma of bone.

Fine-needle aspiration biopsy of synovial sarcoma. A cytomorphologic analysis of primary, recurrent, and metastatic tumors

Thirteen fine-needle aspiration specimens from 10 patients with histologically proven synovial sarcoma are described. The aspiration biopsy specimens were obtained from the primary tumor in five cases, locally recurrent tumors in four cases, pulmonary metastases in three cases, and mediastinal metastasis in one case. Patient's ages ranged from 22 years to 65 years; there were four women and six men. All cases had a confirmation biopsy and/or resection specimen that were reviewed. Histologic subtypes included monophasic fibrous (5 cases), monophasic epithelial (1 case), biphasic (3 cases), and poorly differentiated (1 case). The majority of the aspiration biopsy specimens were similar with moderate to marked smear cellularity dominated by cohesive clusters of spindle-shaped cells with ovoid, hyperchromatic nuclei and scanty tapering cytoplasm. Nucleoli were not prominent. Epithelial tumor cells with ovoid to round, mostly regular, centrally to eccentrically located nuclei, surrounded by scant to abundant cytoplasm predominated in one case (monophasic epithelial) and were admixed with spindle cells in a second (classical biphasic). Multi-nucleated tumor giant cells were not observed in any of the tumors. In biphasic synovial sarcoma, the neoplastic spindle cells are generally more numerous and frequent than the epithelial cells, making distinction from monophasic synovial sarcoma or other spindle cell soft tissue tumors difficult. Although synovial sarcoma may be diagnosed by fine-needle aspiration cytology, clinical correlation, especially in monophasic types, is necessary to minimize errors in sarcoma classification.

Cytologic assessment before and after intraperitoneal hyperthermic chemotherapy for peritoneal carcinomatosis

OBJECTIVE

A phase I/II clinical trial of surgical cytoreduction combined with intraperitoneal hyperthermic chemotherapy (IPHC) for patients with disseminated peritoneal carcinoma was begun in December 1991. The use of peritoneal cytology to assess this treatment modality was the objective of this study.

STUDY DESIGN

Adult patients with primary intraabdominal cancer with peritoneal dissemination underwent surgical debulking and intraoperative, two-hour, heated abdominopelvic perfusion with mitomycin C (MMC). Peritoneal washings were sent before and after IPHC, and the use of peritoneal cytology in this setting was reviewed retrospectively.

RESULTS

Twenty patients (9 female, 11 male) with adenocarcinoma (19) and one with epithelial mesothelioma, all with bulky peritoneal disease, were treated. Pre- and post-IPHC cytologic specimens were available for 18 cases. Cytology was tumor negative in three cases before and after IPHC. Conversion to negative post-IPHC cytology was seen in 6 of 15 cases and correlated with total or near-total tumor debulking (Fisher's exact test, P = .002). For 13 patients with follow-up > or = 6 months, 6 patients with both negative post-IPHC cytology and tumor < or = 1 g were alive at 6 months; of 7 patients with residual gross tumor or positive post-IPHC cytology, 5 had died within 6 months (P = .02).

CONCLUSION

Some patients undergoing IPHC with tumor-positive peritoneal cytology will convert to negative cytology following IPHC. This correlates with total or near-total tumor debulking and is associated with improved survival.

Bronchoalveolar lavage cytology in pulmonary alveolar proteinosis

Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis (PAP) is an uncommon disease in which alveoli are progressively filled with surfactant-related material. Although a definitive diagnosis is usually made by an open lung biopsy, bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cytology may play a decisive role in the clinical work-up of these patients, and, in some cases, may spare a patient a more invasive diagnostic procedure. The authors present three patients in whom BAL cytology specimens contained the characteristic (although not specific) globules of amorphous proteinaceous PAS-positive material accompanied by only rare background macrophages and inflammatory cells. The patients include a 40-year-old man with an 8-year history of fever of unknown origin, a 30-year-old man with a chronic nonproductive cough, and a 6-year-old boy diagnosed at 5 months of age with osteopetrosis and hypogammaglobulinemia who subsequently developed a disseminated Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare infection. All specimens stained with Gomori methenamine silver (3) and Ziehl-Neelsen (2) were negative for microbial organisms, Ultrastructural examination of two specimens revealed the characteristic lamellar structures of surfactant, increasing diagnostic specificity. Lung biopsies and/or autopsy subsequently confirmed the diagnosis in all three cases. The characteristic cytologic and ultrastructural features of PAP in BAL specimens are presented along with the morphologic differential features of other entities which potentially could be confused with PAP.

Fine-needle aspiration cytology of metastatic small cell carcinoma of the colon: a report of three cases

Small cell carcinoma of the large intestine is a rare, extremely aggressive malignancy often associated with an overlying adenoma. We report three cases of metastatic small cell carcinoma of the colon diagnosed by fine-needle aspiration (FNA) biopsy. Two of the patients were women (ages 33 and 46 yr old) and one was a man (69 yr old). FNA biopsy established the diagnosis of metastatic small cell carcinoma involving the liver (2 cases) and soft tissue of the scapular region (1 case). In one patient, the FNA diagnosis of hepatic metastases preceded identification of the primary site. Subsequently, the patient was found to have a small cell carcinoma subadjacent to a colonic villous adenoma, illustrating the importance of investigating villous lesions of the colon in patients with metastatic small cell carcinoma of unknown primary origin (especially in non-smokers). All three cases showed the characteristic cytologic features of small cell carcinoma. Ancillary studies performed on aspirated material confirmed the diagnosis of small cell carcinoma in one case. Immunocytochemical studies revealed punctate cytokeratin and diffuse neuron-specific enolase (NSE) positivity of the malignant cells. Ultrastructurally neurosecretory granules were evident. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first FNA cytologic report of metastatic small cell carcinoma of the large intestine. This FNA report also demonstrates when a small cell carcinoma is detected in a metastatic site in a patient lacking a lung primary, a likely primary site could be adjacent or beneath a polypoid lesion of the colon.

Fine needle aspiration biopsy of hepatic lymphomas: cytomorphology and ancillary studies

OBJECTIVE

The utility of fine needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB) for the diagnosis of epithelial hepatic neoplasms is now widely recognized. The liver may also play host to malignant nonepithelial stromal and lymphoreticular neoplasms, both metastatic and rarely primary. The cytomorphology of these hepatic tumors in aspiration smears is much less well known. In the current study, we examined FNAB material from hepatic lymphomas, including ancillary studies.

STUDY DESIGN

We collected 16 cases of lymphoma involving the liver and diagnosed by FNAB. The patients included seven women and nine men, with ages ranging from 34 to 84 years. Nine patients did not have a diagnosis of lymphoma prior to FNAB. In all cases, aspiration smears were stained by both Diff-Quik and Papanicolaou stain.

RESULTS

Dispersed, monomorphic lymphoid cells were usually numerous, whereas benign hepatocytes were scanty. In addition to the lymphoid appearances of individual cells, helpful clues included the presence of lymphoglandular bodies and the absence of true intercellular cohesion. There were 6 large cell, 3 immunoblastic, 2 small cell, 1 small cell cleaved, 2 mixed cell and 2 unclassified lymphomas in our FNAB series. Immunocytochemical studies were performed on 9 aspirated specimens, flow cytometry on 4 and gene rearrangement on 1. All these ancillary studies supported the cytomorphologic diagnosis of lymphoma, with approximately 90% classified as of B-cell lineage. All seven subsequent histologic examinations were confirmatory.

CONCLUSION

Other entities that must be considered in the FNAB differential diagnosis of hepatic lesions are nonlymphoreticular small cell neoplasms, inflammatory processes and sinusoidal hematopoietic cells. FNAB with ancillary studies can successfully establish the diagnosis of involvement of the liver by lymphoma.

Fine-needle aspiration biopsy of the mediastinum. A multi-institutional analysis

The combined experience of four university medical centers with fine-needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB) of the mediastinum is reviewed. This series includes 189 cases, with 100 males and 89 females, 6 months to 86 years of age. The majority (71%) of diagnoses were neoplastic with the remainder equally distributed between nondiagnostic/unsatisfactory and nonneoplastic lesions. Malignant lymphoma and thymoma were the most frequent primary malignancies. Metastatic tumors represented the majority (60%) of neoplasms identified by FNAB. In 16% of these cases, the primary tumor was not identified. The majority (67%) of metastases were from the lung and were predominantly small cell type (52%). Sixty-six ancillary tests were performed on 51 cases (27%). Histologic correlation was available in 78 of 189 (41%) cases, with a diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of 87% to 88% for the detection of neoplasm and 82% to 83% for distinguishing benign from malignant disease. The positive predictive value for the presence of neoplasm was 97% with three cytologic false positives identified. This series is the largest to date on the utility of FNAB for lesions of the mediastinum.

Cytologic diagnosis of bile peritonitis

Bile peritonitis (BP) is a rare but acute and serious condition that may be associated with high mortality. BP results from generalized or localized leakage of bile into the peritoneal cavity. At best, radiologic studies may be suggestive of BP. We observed a spectrum of cytologic findings in aspirated peritoneal fluids (PF) from 3 patients with BP. Occasional bile pigment-laden macrophages, extracellular lakes of green stringy material admixed with variable numbers of histiocytes, mesothelial cells, and acute and chronic inflammatory cells, were seen. Numerous candida were present in one case. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report describing the cytologic features of BP. Cytology is a simple, rapid, and cost-effective means of examining PF, and can therefore play a significant role in establishing the diagnosis of BP. Early recognition of BP can result in rapid, therapeutic intervention that may prevent significant morbidity and mortality.

Effect of intermittent acid and pepsin exposure on burned esophageal mucosa

PURPOSE

To determine if gastroesophageal reflux affects the healing of esophageal mucosa damaged by alkaline substances.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In a rabbit model, the effects of intermittent acid and pepsin exposure (thereby mimicking gastroesophageal reflux) on post-caustic-burn esophageal mucosa were examined. Exposures were group I (n = 9), sodium hydroxide exposure alone; group II (n = 9), daily acid and pepsin exposure; and group III (n = 8), sodium hydroxide, then daily acid and pepsin exposure. After 3 weeks, the animals were killed and their esophagi examined.

RESULTS

Grossly, specimens in group II appeared normal; specimens in groups I and III were abnormal, displaying some scar tissue, but were not significantly different. Histologically, the differences between groups I and III approached significance. Increased numbers of intraepithelial eosinophils were seen in those specimens exposed to reflux.

CONCLUSIONS

Gastroesophageal reflux may retard the healing of injured esophageal mucosa and should be studied further in an effort to improve the care of patients who sustain alkaline esophageal burns.

Differential diagnostic considerations and potential pitfalls in fine-needle aspiration biopsies of the mediastinum

The mediastinum is the host for a number of relatively unusual primary neoplasms, as well as a frequent recipient of metastatic tumors. From the perspective of fine-needle aspiration cytomorphology, several distinct patterns are yielded. The polygonal (or epithelial-like) cell pattern may be seen with benign and malignant thymomas, germinomas, embryonal carcinoma, and many metastatic carcinomas. An intimate admixture of small lymphocytes with these epithelial cells may occur in this category. The small cell pattern may be produced by malignant non-Hodgkin's lymphomas, neuroblastoma, carcinoid tumors, and metastatic oat cell carcinoma. Uncommon morphologic forms of thymoma and carcinoid tumors, as well as benign mesenchymal lesions, may yield a picture of a spindle-cell proliferation. In addition to cytomorphology, the cytologist needs to integrate clinical, radiographic, immunocytochemical, and ultrastructural data to formulate a final diagnosis.

Gender identification of dried human bloodstains using fluorescence in situ hybridization

Identification of the gender of an individual(s) from whom a bloodstain is derived represents important evidence in medicolegal cases. The efficacy of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) using chromosome X and Y centromeric probes was tested to determine its ability to identify correctly the gender of extracted dried bloodstains. In this preliminary study, FISH correctly identified the gender of 2-week-old dried bloodstains in prepared mixtures of male-to-female blood as low as 1%. The technique is accurate, rapid, sensitive, easily performed and readily available. This application of FISH as a forensic laboratory technique holds great promise.

Virchow's node revisited. Analysis with clinicopathologic correlation of 152 fine-needle aspiration biopsies of supraclavicular lymph nodes

OBJECTIVE

The left supraclavicular lymph node (Virchow's node) may be involved by metastatic malignancies, including those of abdominal or pelvic origin. Almost all previous studies have been based on examination of surgically sampled tissue or postmortem examination. To our knowledge, there has not been a study for nearly 40 years addressing the metastatic pattern to the left supraclavicular lymph node. Furthermore, there has been no study comparing left with right supraclavicular lymph node metastasis or the utilization of fine-needle aspiration biopsy to samples these sites.

DESIGN

A retrospective review of 152 fine-needle aspiration biopsies of supraclavicular lymph nodes was performed, and the neoplasms were grouped into six diagnostic categories from five primary regions.

RESULTS

The patients ranged in age from 2 years to 94 years (average, 55 years) and consisted of 66 males and 83 females. Three patients were biopsied twice. Of the 152 fine-needle aspirations, 87 (57.2%) were of the left supraclavicular lymph node and 65 (42.8%) of the right supraclavicular lymph node. Of the 96 biopsies positive for malignancy, 58 (60.4%) were biopsies of the left and 38 (39.6%) were of the right supraclavicular lymph nodes. Sixteen of 19 pelvic tumors and all six primary abdominal malignancies metastasized to the left supraclavicular lymph node. Thorax, breast, and head and neck malignancies showed no differences in metastatic patterns to the right and left supraclavicular lymph nodes. Ten patients (10.4% of positive nodes) had a diagnosis of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, leukemia, or Hodgkin's disease. Six patients (7.1% of positive nodes) had a metastasis of unknown primary site, and 19 cases (19.8%) had acute or chronic inflammation; seven of the latter cases demonstrated acid-fast bacilli in the aspirated smears.

CONCLUSIONS

Fine-needle aspiration biopsy is an excellent initial procedure in the workup of an enlarged supraclavicular lymph node. Our study confirmed that malignancies originating in the pelvis or abdomen were significantly more likely to metastasize to the left supraclavicular lymph node and that the primary site and types of malignancies that involved the left supraclavicular lymph node were different from those involving the right supraclavicular lymph node.

Identification of male epithelial cells in routine postcoital cervicovaginal smears using fluorescence in situ hybridization. Application in sexual assault and molestation

In a prospective blinded controlled study, the efficacy of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) to detect non-sperm male cells verifying sexual contact was examined. Cervicovaginal smears (CVS) from 40 women with reported post-coital intervals were examined for sperm by cytology and for sperm and non-sperm male cells by FISH using X and Y chromosome specific DNA probes. Fluorescence in situ hybridization identified sperm and/or non-sperm male cells in all specimens from women with positive coital histories, including when the partner had a vasectomy. Male cells were also detectable by FISH in CVS up to 3 weeks after coitus. In comparison, cytology identified sperm in 41% of the positive coital history cases, and none beyond 2 weeks. Fluorescence in situ hybridization is highly sensitive and specific in detecting male cells, and can be performed rapidly on routine CVS. Application of this technique can provide new and additional evidence of sexual contact when current tests are inconclusive.

Extragonadal germ cell tumors: a fine-needle aspiration biopsy study

Germ cell tumors (GCT) are neoplasms that originate predominately in the ovary and testis. Tumors of germ cell origin only very uncommonly arise in extragonadal sites. We have diagnosed ten primary malignant extragonadal GCT arising in the mediastinum, retroperitoneum, liver, and sacrococcygeal region by fine-needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB). Patient ages ranged from 1 to 54 years; the majority were males. Our series included three seminomas, three yolk sac tumors (YST), one choriocarcinoma, one embryonal carcinoma, and two mixed, poorly differentiated GCT. In aspirates, seminomatous elements are dissociated with uniform mononucleate cells having large vesicular nuclei and prominent nucleoli. A tigroid background is produced with Diff-Quik-stained smears. YST yields cohesive clusters of cells with large nuclei, vacuolated cytoplasm, and extracellular hyaline matrix (spheres or hyaline globules). Giant multinucleate tumor cells are seen in choriocarcinoma. Embryonal carcinoma yields cellular smears of hyperchromatic cells with scant cytoplasm arranged predominantly in glandular or papillary formations. Ultrastructural (four cases) and immunocytochemical (seven cases) studies of aspirated material corroborated our cytologic interpretations. Aneuploid tumor cells were found by flow cytometry in aspirated material from a YST. Subsequent histologic examinations were performed on eight, and all were confirmatory. Although extragonadal GCT are relatively uncommon, they need to be considered in FNAB material from midline mass lesions. Ancillary studies were useful in confirming their diagnosis.