Diagnosis of drowning: Electrolytes and total protein in sphenoid sinus liquid

In this study, electrolyte (sodium (Na), chlorine (Cl), and magnesium (Mg)) and total protein (TP) concentrations and volume of liquid in the sphenoid sinus were examined to determine their usefulness to elucidate whether drowning occurred in freshwater or seawater. We examined 68 cases (seawater drowning group: 27 cases, freshwater drowning group: 21 cases, non-drowning group: 20 cases). There was a significant difference in Na, Cl, Mg, and TP concentrations of liquid in the sphenoid sinus among the three groups (seawater drowning, freshwater drowning, and non-drowning groups). To distinguish freshwater drowning from seawater drowning, Na, Cl, and Mg concentrations of liquid in the sphenoid sinus might serve as useful indicators.

Development for the measurement of serum thiosulfate using LC-MS/MS in forensic diagnosis of H2S poisoning

Thiosulfate measurement is crucial to diagnosis of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) poisoning in forensic toxicology. Although GC-MS method is currently regarded as a standard thiosulfate measurement, it requires complicated sample preparation prior to analysis. This study presents a simple, rapid, and highly sensitive method for the quantitative analysis of serum thiosulfate by using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). This method is based on selected reaction monitoring and has high sensitivity with a lower quantification limit of 0.5μM. Precision and accuracy of this method meet the basic requirements for quantitative analysis (intra- and inter-day tests have a relative standard deviation of ⩽10.4%; range of analytical recovery is 94.3-102.6%). On the measurements of serum thiosulfate by our developed method, a thiosulfate concentration as 57.5μM was detected clearly in the H2S poisoning case comparing to the non poisoning case in which only a trace amount of thiosulfate was observed.

Appropriate blood sampling sites for measuring Tg concentrations for forensic diagnosis

Previous studies have reported that thyroglobulin (Tg) concentrations in heart blood are high in cases of asphyxia caused by neck compression such as hanging, strangulation, and throttling and in those with fatal traumatic brain injuries. However, even in cases without these findings presumed to increase the Tg concentration in the previous studies, we previously reported that in some cases the Tg concentration in right heart blood (RHB) and left heart blood (LHB) exceeded the standard value for diagnosis (200 ng/mL) defined in previous studies and the Tg concentration in RHB was significantly higher than that in LHB. In the present study, in our 46 forensic autopsy cases without findings presumed to increase Tg concentration, we separately collected external iliac venous blood (IVB) and external iliac arterial blood (IAB) in addition to RHB and LHB, measured Tg concentrations in RHB, LHB, IVB, and LAB (TRHB, TLHB, TIVB, and TIAB, respectively), and investigated the appropriate blood sampling site for measuring Tg concentrations for forensic diagnosis. TRHB, TLHB, TIVB, and TIAB were 386.3 ± 674.1, 105.8 ± 179.0, 109.2 ± 166.8, and 43.7 ± 90.9 ng/mL, respectively. There were statistically significant differences between TRHB and TLHB, TIVB and TIAB, TRHB and TIVB, and TLHB and TIAB. Tg is more readily diffused by the venous system (RHB, IVB) than by the arterial system (LHB, IAB) because the venous system retains more blood volume after death. Tg is more readily diffused to heart blood (RHB, LHB) than to peripheral blood (IVB, IAB) because of the proximity of the heart to the thyroid gland. Therefore, we conclude that Tg leaks into the vessels around the thyroid gland because of the influences of postmortem changes and subsequently diffuses through the blood after death, and therefore the Tg concentration increases after death. When Tg concentration values are used for forensic diagnosis, it is appropriate to measure them using peripheral arterial blood situated distant from the thyroid gland.

Raising future forensic pathologists (second report): results of a preliminary interview survey

Fostering the specialists of forensic pathology has become a worldwide problem. In Japan, factors such as government budget cuts, the introduction of initial postgraduate clinical training system, as well as national policy on increasing autopsy rates, may deter young graduates from entering this specialty. The aim of this study was to look for clues to promote the training of young forensic pathologists. We selected and interviewed five forensic pathologists, with each interview lasting approximately 60 minutes, and picked up common views among them. The interviews topic, based on a prior survey, was: "What do you believe forensic pathologists require to promote the training of their successors." We selected common views on the three themes listed below; 1) standardization of minimum requirements to be independent forensic pathologists, 2) balancing forensic pathologists' time among autopsy practice, research, and education, and 3) preparing positions for younger forensic pathologists. These opinions were the same as those of previous studies conducted overseas and must be discussed at academic conferences in the future, where both junior and senior forensic pathologists participate.

Raising future forensic pathologists (first report): results of a preliminary questionnaire survey

The shortage of future forensic pathologists is a serious problem both in Japan and overseas. In Japan, however, factors such as government budget cuts and increasing the autopsy rates, make the condition even worse. In an attempt to improve this situation, we implemented a questionnaire survey to investigate the particular features necessary when selecting a career in forensic medicine. As a preliminary study, we sent the questionnaire along with an anonymous answer sheet to all forensic pathologists with a degree in medicine M.D., who were affiliated with universities in Hokkaido and the Tohoku district of Japan as of August 2011. Thirteen physicians in nine universities (response rate 77.8%) returned the answer sheet. Characteristics of participants are listed below: years of experience, board specialty and number of years as board certified specialists, percentage of work effort spent on autopsy practice, the time when they decided to work as a forensic pathologist, the time when to best recommend forensic pathologist as a career, and crucial factors in choosing the specialty of forensic medicine. As a result of this research, we've revealed the importance of undergraduate medical education or the effect on the role models. Furthermore, we've also extracted miscellaneous comments, such as standardization of minimum requirements. In our study, we' ve found some clues to increase future candidates in the field forensic medicine. However, we must collect further samples for our questionnaire survey to validate the study, and, as a future project, we must also address this problem at the congress of forensic medicine.

[Observations on injuries by blunt objects]

Based on my personal experience publishing case reports on blunt injuries, I hereby focus on issues that have recently come to my attention. 1. Abrasions: 1) As to whether they occurred ante-mortem or post-mortem; those reddish in color cannot always have occurred antemortem. When they overlap with reddish (-purple) discoloration, as in hypostasis, post-mortem abrasions look reddish as well. Abrasions larger than the tip of the finger or the palm of the hand are often seen post-mortem and are thought to occur due to the touching of putrefied skin post-mortem. 2) There are cases where the direction in which the epidermis peeled-off is not apparent, when it peels off in many directions or where there is no residual epidermis. 3) The shape and size of an abrasion can indicate the structure of the offending blunt object. When there is an abrasion on the scalp 3 to 4 cm in diameter, with structures 5 mm in diameter at the margins of the abrasion, it can be inferred that the victim fell on a paved gravel road. 2. Bruises: 1) Inferring the nature of a blunt object: (1) Evidence of a fist blow: Co-existence of the following three features indicates a blow by the fist : 1. macular discoloration, 2. within an area of approximately 8 cm by 5 cm, 3. with an abrasion from the thumb nail. (2) Evidence of being grabbed:Try to grab the corpse with your own hand during autopsy to find how the person was grabbed. Bruise-like discoloration can be generated post-mortem on the upper arm, when a body is being drawn out of water, for example. 2) Tram-line bruises: These appear when a victim was struck by a stick. To estimate the diameter of the object, it is useful to measure two parts of the bruising : the width of the pale part between the bruises and the width between the outer margins of the bruises. 3. Intradermal bleeding: There tends to be a grouping of hemorrhagic spots, the interval between which 1 mm or less. It can be generated by both direct and indirect force. Abrasions may be both present or absent. 4. Contused lacerated wounds: First of all, it is necessary to determine the characteristics of the offending blunt object based on the findings of the wound. When the edge of the end of a column works against the skin at an angle, abrasions are mainly generated on the one margin abraded by the edge. When the smooth round surface of a column is applied, abrasions are not likely to occur on or near the margins. To diagnose a wound as being contused, the following findings are considered valuable : the margins of the wound are more irregular than the incision; the margins are contused; the osseous membrane is detached at the bottom of the wound; and abrasions are present at the margins. Abrasions are generated when the surface of the object is rough and when the sharper edge is at an angle. They tend not to occur when the surface of the object is smooth with no angular edge or when the sharper edge works perpendicularly against the skin. 5. Post-mortem mutilation by animals: It is necessary to distinguish wounds caused by animals from those that are man-made. Crows will tear out the eyeballs, open the intercostal muscle and devour the lungs. They pull and rip off the skin, but do not seem to chew on the bones. Dogs and foxes will chew on the bones, leaving traces of their teeth about 5 mm in width. Rats leave round-shaped parts missing from the skin, the margins of which are quite sharp. They do not seem to chew on the bones. 6. One pattern of injuries from an immersed body: A set of abrasions, bruises, pocket formation (décollement) of the head and face, accompanied by dehiscence or fracture of the spine and drowning indicates jumping into the water face first and banging the head against the bottom of the body of the water, followed by drowning. 7. A case of a traffic accident: The details of the accident became apparent from the following findings in and on the autopsied body: contused lacerations on both knees, abrasions and pocket formation (décollement) on the parietal region of the head, characteristically shaped abrasions on the back, acetabula fractures caused by raising of the femoral head, fractured ribs caused by antero-posterior or posteroanterior compression, and an annular fracture at the base of the skull. The abrasions on the back were determined to have been generated by compression of structures on the underside of the car. The contused lacerations on the knees were considered to have been generated upon impact with the bumper, and the posture of the victim was concluded to have been supine with his knees drawn up. Collaboration with police traffic investigators is considered essential. 8. The medico-legal diagnostic capability of young pathologists could be improved if they observed unexplainable findings during autopsy with their own eyes, researched and discussed the findings with their mentor and colleagues, and published case reports.

An autopsy case of sudden death due to acute gastric dilatation without rupture

We report the first autopsy case of fatal gastric dilatation without rupture. A 31-year-old woman who lived alone was found dead in her living room. Despite being very thin, she showed marked abdominal distention. Autopsy and histological findings revealed that a severely distended stomach, of which walls notably thin and displayed transmural necrosis, occupied the entire abdominal cavity. Severe congestion was observed in the intestine and cecum. Theses findings suggest that bulimia nervosa together with anorexia nervosa resulted in rapid dilation of the stomach. We conclude that the cause of death was acute circulatory failure from hypovolemic shock that occurred following compression of the inferior vena cava and superior mesenteric vein, and by loss of circulatory volume to the third space.

Estimation of the time of death of decomposed or skeletonized bodies found outdoors in cold season in Sapporo city, located in the northern district of Japan

In Sapporo city, located in the northern district of Japan, it is very difficult to estimate the time of death of decomposed or skeletonized bodies found outdoors in cold season (November-April) because postmortem changes are markedly retarded in the season compared with warm season (May-October), and the bodies are often damaged and skeletonized by carnivorous animals such as wild dogs and foxes. However, they cannot damage the brain in the cranium. The brain is mainly damaged by fly larvae. In Sapporo city, we can estimate that the time of death of a cadaver found outdoors in the cold season is in the beginning of November or before if fly larvae hatched in autumn exist on the cadaver, and that the time of death is in the beginning of November or after if fly larvae hatched in autumn do not exist and most of the brain remains in the cranium.

An autopsy case of intraoperative death due to pulmonary fat embolism—possibly caused by release of tourniquet after multiple muscle-release and tenotomy of the bilateral lower limbs

We report a case of a juvenile male with muscle rigidity caused by cerebral palsy who experienced intraoperative sudden death due to pulmonary fat embolism after multiple muscle-release and tenotomy of the bilateral lower limbs. Data were obtained through review of the surgical and anesthesia records, as well as from autopsy and histopathological examination. All surgical procedures were performed within the same operation, beginning with the right lower limb and then proceeding with the left lower limb, with application of a pneumatic tourniquet to avoid intraoperative hemorrhage. Slight changes in the hemodynamics were noticed after release of the right tourniquet. Further, sudden onset of hypotension, severe bradycardia, and a marked decrease in percutaneously monitored oxygen saturation occurred just after release of the left tourniquet when the left limb was raised for casting. The patient died despite immediate and vigorous cardiopulmonary resuscitation. At autopsy performed 20 h after death, examination of the lungs revealed a pale surface, slight edema, and obvious fat droplets in the vessels at the cut surfaces. Histopathological examination with fat staining was notable for the presence of pulmonary fat embolism. These results suggest that restoration of venous return after removal of the tourniquet combined with massive fat embolism from dead spaces was the likely cause of death.

Age estimation from quantitative evaluation of atherosclerosis of abdominal aorta in Japanese

To assess validity of age estimation from the degree of atherosclerosis of abdominal aorta, we quantitatively evaluated the atherosclerotic parameters (surface involvement of atherosclerotic lesions, atherosclerotic index, and aortic width at renal arteries and common iliac bifurcation, which was measured by using digital photographs at autopsy), and collected individual factors (age, sex, body height, body weight and heart weight, and body surface, body mass index and cardiomegaly index) in autopsied 103 bodies (62 males, 41 females) during 2 years. We statistically examined their data by multiple regression analysis to determine the effects of the individual factors on the proceeding parameters of atherosclerosis, and obtained correlation coefficient, regression equation, and standard error of estimate between the atherosclerotic parameters and age. Among the factors, only age was influential on all the atherosclerotic parameters, of which the surface involvement (SI%) and the aortic width at common iliac bifurcation (Wb cm) were acceptable as the parameters for age estimation, and useful in a wide age range, according to the results of the standard errors of estimate. We also recognized predicting formulae for age (Y) by multiple regression analysis; Y = 0.52SI + 9.53Wb - 4.41 in males and Y = 0.34SI + 18.47Wb - 23.32 in females.

[Problems in applying a rapid assay kit for cardiac troponin T to medico-legal blood samples]

It is difficult to diagnose cardiac-related death only by external examination. However, in the areas where no medical examiner system is established, the diagnosis is made mostly from the findings by external examination. Clinically, cardiac troponin T (cTnT) rapid assay kits are used for the diagnosis of ischemic heart disease. The kits have started being applied to forensic medicine and used for the diagnosis of cardiac-related death without exact evidence. In this study, we collected postmortem blood samples from 110 forensic autopsy cases and evaluated the utility of the kits in the field of forensic medicine. Blood samples collected from the left and the right parts of the hearts showed extremely high positive rates (95.1% each), and peripheral blood samples also showed very high positive rates (71.2%), although cardiac-related deaths were only 7 cases of all 110 cases. Because cTnT concentration of postmortem blood samples is affected by non-cardiac-related natural death, postmortem changes, or cardiopulmonary resuscitation, the results from using the kits are not reliable in determining the cause of death. We conclude that the kits cannot be applied in forensic medicine.

[Estimation of time of death by the use of the overwintering of flies]

We observed whether or not there were eggs, larvae, pupae, and empty pupal shells of flies on cadavers found outdoors in Sapporo, the northern district of Japan (43 degrees N). The temperature has an influence on the oviposition of flies. The average season in which flies lay eggs is from the middle of April to the beginning of November, although there is a little lag year by year. As flies overwinter generally as larvae, we can estimate postmortem interval of a cadaver found in spring on the basis of the size and the mortality of the larvae. If the length of larvae is 1 cm or longer, and many of them are dead, and if there are no empty pupal shells, the time of death of a cadaver found outdoors in spring is between the middle of September and the beginning of November in the previous year.

Age estimation from the degree of osteophyte formation of vertebral columns in Japanese

To assess the age estimation from the degree of osteophyte formation of vertebral column, we set grading scores from 0 to 3 for the osteophyte formation based on the height of the process of vertebral column, and defined the average of the values at the cervical, thoracic and lumbar parts of the vertebra to be 'osteophyte formation index' for an individual. We evaluated osteophyte formation in autopsied 225 bodies (138 males, 87 females) during 5 years, and statistically analyzed the integrated data. The following were statistically obtained for each sex: correlation coefficient, regression equation, standard error of estimate (SE) between the score at each part of the vertebral column and age, and between 'osteophyte formation index' and age. In all the parts of the vertebra, there was a significant correlation between the score value and age. We recognized a significant correlation between 'osteophyte formation index' (X) and age (Y), and regression lines were Y = 37.90 + 12.07X (SE; 12.6 y.o.) in males and Y = 36.67+18.64X (SE; 11.9 y.o.) in females. It was apparent that to know the degree of the osteophyte formation was useful in age estimation.

[Case of positive identification by digital superimposed comparison between photograph of the thoracic vertebrae front and thorax roentgenograph]

We reported an autopsy case in which an antemortem thorax roentgenograph and a postmortem photograph of thoracic vertebrae front were available for digital superimposed comparison of contour of the vertebral column and provided a positive identification by the characteristic osteophyte formation. In the elderly, the thorax roentgenograph is often stored in medical institution. Osteophyte formation of the vertebral column has individual features with the aging and formed characteristic profiles of the vertebral column. Photographing of a cadaver's thoracic vertebrae front after removing of the thoracic and abdominal organ should be carried out to make a material for future comparison examination in personal identification.

Blood storage for forensic hemoglobin analysis using CO-oximeter

Blood samples need to be stored for forensic examination using CO-oximeter in case immediate analysis is not possible at autopsy, or re-examinations are expected. In this study, we examined the condition for storage (temperature and air contact) to keep the initial values of hemoglobin derivatives unchanged for a long period. Fresh venous blood samples were divided into two groups; one group was stored without air and the other group with air headspace above the sample. The samples of each group were stored at 37 degrees C, room temperature (ca. 20-25 degrees C), ca. 4 degrees C and ca. -20 degrees C, respectively. They were analyzed with the use of CO-oximeter (CIBA-CORNING 270) a number of times during 6 weeks. And changes in the values of oxyhemoglobin (O2Hb), methemoglobin (MetHb), carboxyhemoglobin (COHb), deoxyhemoglobin (HHb) and total hemoglobin (THb) were examined. Also, another group of blood samples which were made high in COHb experimentally were stored without air at room temperature, ca. 4 degrees C and ca. -20 degrees C, and changes in the percentages of COHb of these samples were examined during 6 months. Our results indicated the following: When the purpose of storage is preservation of O2Hb, MetHb, COHb or HHb, storage at ca. 4 degrees C is considered appropriate, which can keep initial values for up to 2 weeks. As far as COHb is concerned, longer (at least 6 months) storage is possible at ca. 4 degrees C. And no contact with air is desirable in these storages. For THb, frozen storage may be best, which keeps the initial values for up to at least 4 to 6 weeks. In conclusion, when blood samples are stored for CO-oximeter analysis, the temperature and the period of storage should be decided according to the durability of each objective hemoglobin derivative.

[A case of positive personal identity of skeletonized remains using lumbar radiograph]

We reported an autopsy case in which premortem and postmortem radiographs of the spine were available for comparison and provided a basis for making an identification. As the elderly often lives alone and has no relatives, one of our tasks is sometimes ascertaining the personal identity of him or her. Osteophytes of the vertebra are valid for establishing a positive personal identification in human remains.

[An autopsy case of an infant born with a caul who died due to asphyxia after live-birth]

We reported an autopsy case of a child born with a caul. The infant was a female and seemed to be full-term. No remarkable pathological findings for disease or anomalies were observed. The floating test of lungs was partially positive. And on the gastro-intestinal floating test, only stomach floated. In histological examination, the alveoli in the lungs were partially slightly open. We thought that those were due to the cardio-pulmonary resuscitation. Pulmonary surfactant was positive immunohistochemically. And the stable microbubble test on the liquid in her stomach was very strong. Even if a child is born alive, he or she will soon die due to asphyxia but for the production of surfactant in the lungs. We can evaluate more precisely the potential respiratory ability of a neonate died due to asphyxia by means of stable microbubble test on newborn gastric contents and immunohistochemical staining of surfactant in lungs.

[Talks on evaluation of students' writing (discussion)]

We talked about the evaluation of students' writing; this is thought to be difficult for teachers. We have a class "history of medicine" for freshmen in the second semester of the medical course. Students give lecture by themselves on famous historical persons in medicine such as Hippocrates, Vesalius, Pasteur and Sackett, referring to their historical significance in present medicine. As the final work of the subject they write report on "clinical medicine or medical researches 20 years in future and myself". We talked generally about educational evaluation in various aspects, concerning the methods for writing. We discussed mainly on two themes--ability to write and originality in thinking. We give a larger point to the originality, which correlates to ability to write, though we feel difficult in evaluating students' originality only by reading their reports. We also emphasize the importance of active interaction between students and teachers, and to evaluate educational activities of teachers in Japanese universities.

[Bruise-like discolorations can appear after death]

It is not sufficiently emphasized in our country that bruising can also appear post-mortem. We report two cases in which we observed discolorations which looked like ante-mortem bruising. Case 1: A 37-year-old man was found prone on a river shore and taken out of the water by a rescuer by grasping at the right upper arm approximately one hour and 30 minutes after death. At inspection, two thumb-sized discolorations resembling ante-mortem bruising were observed on the lateral and frontal surfaces of the right upper arm. Case 2: A 40-year-old woman was found prone immersed in a moat and taken out of the water in the above-mentioned manner approximately one hour and 45 minutes after death. At inspection, two thumb-sized discolorations appearing to be ante-mortem bruising were observed on the inner surface of the right upper arm. The cause of death in both instances was drowning. Bibliographic investigation revealed that bruising of significant size can appear after death. We speculate generally on conditions for generation of post-mortem bruising. Additionally, we believe that post-mortem bruising should be sufficiently considered, because it can be important whether a person was grasped when he or she was alive or dead.

Non-proteolytic activation of human prorenin by anti-prorenin prosegment (pf#1: 1P-15P) antiserum

Recombinant human prorenin was activated by incubation with anti-prorenin prosegment (L1PPTDTTTFKRIFLKR15P) antiserum at 4 degrees C. This activation was dependent on the concentration of the antiserum and incubation time. After the activation no molecular weight alteration of prorenin was observed by immunoblotting analysis. A peptide of L1PPTDTTTF8P as well as L1PPTDTTTFKRIFLKR15P potently interfered with the activation. Most of the activated prorenin bound to Protein A Sepharose CL 4B. The Km and Vmax values of the activated prorenin were 0.2 microM and 23.7 micrograms Ang I/ml/h, respectively, which were similar in level to those of mature renin obtained by trypsinization.

Estimation of stature from somatometry of skull

In order to investigate the possibility of estimating stature from somatometry of the skull, we carried out a study on 124 Japanese cadavers (comprising 77 males and 47 females) that had been autopsied at our laboratory between July 1986 and June 1991. Somatometry of the skull was performed on diameter (distance between glabella and external protuberance) and circumference (length around the skull through two points: the glabella and the external protuberance). The regression equations calculated were as follows: stature in males = (diameter + circumference) x 1.35 + 70.6 (standard error of estimate (S.E.) = 6.96 cm); stature in females = circumference x 1.28 + 87.8 (S.E. = 6.59 cm); stature in both sexes = (diameter + circumference) x 1.95 + 25.2 (S.E. = 7.95 cm). These S.E.s appear to be larger than those obtained for other parts of the body. However, in cases where identification is required by means of only the skull, this method could prove useful.

[Investigating methods for age estimation (1). Height of the apex of the medullary cavity of the humerus]

The relationship between age and the height of the proximal apex of the medullary cavity of humerus was investigated on 13 male bodies (29-62 years) and 12 female bodies (22-80 years) and a provisional criterion for age estimation was obtained. When the apex is (1) at a height of the surgical neck, the estimated age is under 50 years in both sexes, (2) at the epiphyseal line, over 50 years in males, and from 50 to 75 years in females. In a few cases, however, the apex reaches the line even in the very young age group (20-30 years). (3) When a cavity or rough structure is present above the line in addition to phase (2), the estimated age is over 75 years in females, but unknown in males. We also discuss the validity of Koshinaga's criterion (1951).

Duplication of an amphioxus myogenic bHLH gene is independent of vertebrate myogenic bHLH gene duplication

Gene duplication is thought to be a major genetic change that may have permitted the evolution of vertebrates from invertebrates. The myogenic genes encode basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcriptional factors essential for the formation of skeletal muscle. The invertebrate genome contains only a single myogenic bHLH gene, whereas the vertebrate genome contains four (MyoD, Myf-5, myogenin and MRF4). Since the tunicate genome contains a single myogenic bHLH gene, its duplication might have occurred some time during chordate evolution. To determine whether the duplication of the myogenic bHLH gene occurred prior to, or after the divergence of vertebrates from the cephalochordate lineage, we amplified target fragments from the amphioxus, Branchiostoma floridae, by means of PCR. Sequence analysis and genomic Southern analysis revealed that the amphioxus genome contains two myogenic bHLH genes (BMD1 and BMD2). A comparison of the amino acid sequences in the bHLH domain between BMD1, BMD2 and four vertebrate myogenic bHLH gene products, however, showed that neither BMD1 nor BMD2 resembled any of the four genes. These results suggested that the duplication of amphioxus myogenic bHLH gene occurred independently of that leading to the four myogenic bHLH genes in vertebrates.

[Relationship among "kenshi" (inquest), "kenshi" (postmortem examination) and "ken-an" (postmortem inspection) in Japan]

Inquest ([symbol: see text]) and postmortem examination ([symbol: see text]) have the same pronunciation of "kenshi" in Japan. So we are inclined to use these terms with confusion or substitution. We discussed the differences among three "kenshis" adding to postmortem inspection ([symbol: see text]; "ken-an") with investigating references. Many forensic scientists described that inquests were done by public prosecutors and inspections by medical doctors. But there were various interpretations of postmortem examination, e.g. "postmortem examination is done by public prosecutors or police", "it is the same as inspection by medical doctor", "it is one of the aids of inquest", "it is also including forensic autopsy". Although being no differences between the two kenshis written by two kinds of different Chinese characters ([symbol: see text]). This is caused an only problem in writing Japanese languages, it happens especially when we have to use Chinese characters for everyday use. In order to define this postmortem examination in Japan, we paid attention to corpse procedures. We made a figure to include each interpretation and to understand that postmortem examination had several meanings from a narrow sense to a wide sense. We suggested that the most confident definition was of the widest sense which meant the inspection and autopsy by doctors and the inspection by public prosecutors or police.

Physiological, morphological and anatomical responses of Fraxinus mandshurica seedlings to flooding

Two-year-old Fraxinus mandshurica Rupr. var. japonica Maxim. seedlings were flooded to 8 cm above soil level for 70 days. The flooding treatment altered the growth, morphology, stem anatomy and ethylene production of the seedlings. Although flooding did not affect height growth, it stimulated diameter growth of the submerged stems by increasing both the number and size of wood fibers produced; however, the thickness of the cell walls of the wood fibers was reduced by flooding. In response to the flooding treatment, the seedlings formed abundant hyperhydric tissues, originating from the vicinity of lenticels on the surface of the flooded stems, and adventitious roots, which grew through the hyperhydric tissues. Aerenchyma tissues were observed in the bark of the adventitious roots. The flooding treatment did not affect dry weight increment of leaves and stems, but it reduced the total dry weight increment of the root system even though it promoted adventitious root formation. Flooding also enhanced ethylene production in the submerged portions of stems. The potential roles of flood-induced ethylene in cambial growth and adventitious root formation in flooded plants are discussed.

[An autopsy case of a pacemaker implanted patient]

A pacemaker implanted patient (female, 78 years old) was found dead in her bed and judicially autopsied. Before postmortem inspection the pacemaker was removed by a doctor. We report the problems in such as the doctor's treatment, additionally accommodation of medical examiners and police, and determination of a cause of death in autopsy.

[Age estimation by appearance of gray hair in pubic hair]

The pubic hair of Japanese males aged 12-90 years old (n = 123) and females 14-85 ys. (n = 80) autopsied during 1984-1993 was investigated to determine its appearance age and possible appearance age of gray hair. As the appearance degree of gray hair in pubic hair 5 stages were applied to samples to establish a criterion for age estimation. Stage 0; no gray hair, 1; 1-3 gray hairs, 2; a few-10, 3; 10 gray hairs-2/3 of the entire pubic hair, 4; more than 3/4. The appearance age of gray hair with appearance rate 100% (75%) was more than 65 (55) ys. in both sex. The possible appearance age was more than 30 ys. in males and 36 ys. in females, practically younger than "45 years old" which had been described in texts. The age range with a hit rate 100% is at stage 0; less than 62 ys. in males, less than 59 ys. in females, at stage 1; 30-64 ys. in males, 36-60 ys. in females, at stage 2; 43-72 ys., 39-85 ys. and at stage 3; 49-77 ys,--.

[Cultural background of the Japanese bioethics]

We attended the 11th Liaison Society of Ethics Committees in Medical Schools in Japan. Three symposiums were held under the themes of quality of life (QOL), stopping medical cure and the Japanese bioethics. Symposists were medical practitioners, teaching staffs in universities and a person of religion. In the first symposium, the definition of QOL, the usage of the term and the method of its evaluation were discussed. In the second symposium, an internist and a neonatologist reported several cases and stated problems and countermeasures in terminal care in cases that they could not maintain QOL. A person of religion made his opinion on the problems. In the final symposium were stated Japanese bioethics from the aspects of ethics and cultural anthropology. They emphasized differences in bioethical view between the Japanese and the Europeans and Americans, and a need to reform medical education in Japan. It is difficult to define QOL and to care patients at terminal stage, because present-day persons have various senses of value. Especially, Japanese have taken Western culture into our traditional social structures with its original style. Therefore, we have dual culture, as recognized in communication. Although it is very important to communicate sufficiently between patients and doctors, we consider that the dual communication has interrupted their mutual understandings. Incidentally, Western medicine had originally dual structure of art and technology. But we have taken only the technological aspect. That is probably the reason why human relations have been getting worse. It would be necessary for us to attend to these two dual structures in order to solve bioethical problems in Japan.

[A case of examination of skeletal remains--how many bodies did they come from?]

We examined skeletal remains, with the main intention of estimating how many bodies they had come from. The samples were a skull with defect of its base, an upper jaw, two lower jaws (No. 1, No. 2) and two skeletal bodies (No. 1: with no skull, No. 2: consisting mainly of the lower extremities). In examining the mutual relationship among them, we utilized adjustability between the skull and the lower jaws at the temporomandibular joint, and between the lower jaws and the upper jaw in the biting manner of their teeth. We concluded that the most probable combination was of two bodies, i.e. [skull + lower jaw No. 1 + skeletal body No. 1] and [upper jaw + lower jaw No. 2 + skeletal body No. 2]. Beside the above presentation, we did comment on several problems in personal identification and estimation of postmortem interval.

Effects of flooding on leaf dynamics and other seedling responses in flood-tolerant Alnus japonica and flood-intolerant Betula platyphylla var. japonica

Two-year-old seedlings of Alnus japonica Steud. and Betula platyphylla var. japonica Hara were flooded from mid-June to early November, to study the effects of flooding on seedling survival and growth, morphological changes in stems and roots, leaf emergence, leaf fall, and leaf longevity. In A. japonica, growth was not affected by flooding, except for a slight decrease in height growth, but some morphological changes of stems and roots were observed, i.e., stem base hypertrophy, hypertrophied lenticels, formation of adventitious roots and development of new roots. In B. platyphylla var. japonica, growth was severely reduced by flooding and all seedlings died by the 20th week of flooding, without showing any adaptive morphological changes in stems or roots. Flooding induced rapid depression of leaf emergence, promoted leaf abscission, and reduced leaf longevity in B. platyphylla var. japonica. In contrast, in A. japonica, basal leaf senescence was delayed in flooded seedlings, thereby extending leaf longevity compared with unflooded seedlings.

Estimation of time of death by quantification of melatonin in corpses

A method for the estimation of time of death (TOD), was evaluated by measuring the melatonin (MT) content of pineal bodies (PBs), sera and urine samples from 85 cadavers. A total of 44 cadavers were investigated in Sapporo (geographical coordinates N 43 degrees 4', E 141 degrees 21') and 41 in Tokyo (N 35 degrees 39', E 139 degrees 44'). MT contents were measured by radioimmunoassay (RIA) in 75 PBs, 27 sera and 14 urine samples. Exponential differences of pineal MT content were recognized between peaks in nighttime and nadirs in daytime, ranging from 0.099 to 63.2 ng/PB. Circadian rhythms were also observed for the concentrations of MT in serum (11-205 pg/ml), and in urine (7.5-137.5 pg/ml). Consequently, criteria for the TOD estimation are proposed as follows. 1) Pineal MT contents--(1) 0-0.2 ng/PB: TOD 1100-1700 hours, (2) 0.2-0.3 ng/PB: TOD 0700-2000 hours, (3) 0.3-1 ng/PB: inconclusive, (4) 1-4 ng/PB: TOD 1600-1000 hours, (5) 4-8 ng/PB: TOD 2000-0800 hours, (6) over 8 ng/PB: TOD 2000-0500 hours, 2) Serum MT concentration--(1) 0-100 pg/ml: inconclusive, (2) over 100 pg/ml: TOD 2200-0100 hours, and 3) Urinary MT concentration--(1) 0-35 pg/ml: inconclusive, (2) over 35 pg/ml: TOD 1800-0600 hours. The range of the estimation can be limited by a combination of these 3 criteria. The present method can be combined with other methods for estimating the TOD to decrease the range.

[Estimation of age from epiphyseal union degrees of the sternal end of the clavicle]

The sternal ends of right clavicles of Japanese aged 13-31 years (n = 54) autopsied during 1982-1992 were observed for determining degree of epiphyseal union to establish a criterion for age estimation. As the degree of union 5 stages (McKern and Stewart, 1957) were applied to samples: Stage 0; without any union between the trunk and the epiphyseal cap, stage 1; between stage 0 and stage 2, stage 2; half united, stage 3; between stage 2 and stage 4, and stage 4; completely united. As results, in females union appears to proceed faster than in males. There were cases in which union reached stage 4 in younger ages. As a criterion for age estimation it is proposed at present that in both sex, when union is in stage 0, age is certainly estimated to be less than 22 years old and in stage 4, more than 19 years old. Comparing the present data with the investigation about American males by McKern and Stewart (1957), in Japanese males union proceeds more fast than them. The authors realized that the correct criteria should be used in age estimation on a sample belonging to the same race and to the times. The clavicles in skeletal remains tend to be preserved outdoors and are suitable for estimating age from adolescence to about 30 years old. Therefore the present criterion would be very useful in districts such as Hokkaido where skeletal remains are commonly found.

Production of monoclonal antibodies against diquat and its enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

Monoclonal antibodies(MoAbs) very specific to diquat (DQ) were produced. An immunogen was synthesized by binding DQ to bovine serum albumin via a diazo-coupled derivative. BALB/c mice were immunized i.p. monthly with 0.25mg of the immunogen for five months. Their spleen cells were fused with P3U1 myeloma cells and hybridoma clones secreting MoAbs were obtained. Two MoAbs were selected and subtyped to be IgM and IgG3. The MoAbs recognized DQ but did not bind to paraquat and other analogues at all. A datum obtained from a clinical sample demonstrates that an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay system using one of the MoAbs is useful in the practice of toxicological analysis.

[Age estimation from tooth attritions of lower incisors--discussion on the "Amano's method"]

As a method of age estimation from teeth we focused our attention on attritions of lower incisors. Using the Amano's method, we took records of tooth attritions in the planted state of 83 subjects whose ages ranged from 14 to 76 years. A positive correlationship was found to exist between the tooth attrition index and the actual age, allowing to establish the following formula which graphically shows a straight line: Y = 8.505X + 26.073 (r = 0.607), where X is the mean of attrition indexes of lower incisors and Y, the estimated age. In our method of age estimation through attrition indexes, we took advantage of probability and confidence interval. In addition, our method was contrasted with Amano's method, a widely used one in Japan.

[Reproductive and developmental toxicity studies of 6-amidino-2-naphthyl 4(-)[(4,5-dihydro-1H-imidazol-2-yl) amino] benzoate dimethanesulfonate (FUT-187). (IV)--Oral administration to New Zealand white rabbits during the period of fetal organogenesis

Oral administration of 6-amidino-2-naphthyl 4(-)[(4,5-dihydro-1H-imidazol-2-yl)amino] benzoate dimethanesulfonate (FUT-187) at doses of 10, 30 and 100 mg/kg was given to New Zealand White rabbits on days 6 to 18 of gestation. The following results were obtained. Decreased food consumption and suppression of body weight gain in dams were observed and these changes contributed to the increase in aborted or prematured births and increased fetal mortality at the 100 mg/kg group. There were changes attributable to FUT-187 on external, skeletal and visceral examinations of fetuses. Based on the above, the no-effect dose level in dams and fetuses in the present study is 30 mg/kg/day.

[Antigenicity study of 6-amidino-2-naphthyl 4(-)[(4,5-dihydro-1H-imidazol-2-yl)amino] benzoate dimethanesulfonate (FUT-187) in guinea pigs and mice

Antigenicity study of 6-amidino-2-naphthyl 4(-)[(4,5-dihydro-1H-imidazol-2-yl)amino] benzoate dimethanesulfonate (FUT-187), a new protease inhibitor, was investigated in guinea pigs and mice and the following results were obtained. 1. In guinea pigs immunized with FUT-187 plus adjuvant by intramuscular/subcutaneous routes, ASA, ACA and PCA reactions challenged intravenously or intradermally were positive. 2. In guinea pigs immunized with FUT-187 plus adjuvant by intramuscular/subcutaneous routes, ASA and PCA reactions challenged orally were negative. 3. In guinea pigs immunized with FUT-187 by the oral route, ASA, ACA and PCA reactions were negative. 4. In guinea pigs immunized with IABA and AN plus adjuvant by intramuscular/subcutaneous routes, ASA and PCA reactions were negative. 5. 48-hr PCA reactions were elicited with sera obtained from BALB/c and C3H/He mice immunized with FUT-187 plus adjuvant by the intraperitoneal route, responses were negative. 6. From the results of hapten inhibition tests using anti-FUT-187 guinea pig serum, it is suggested that the antigenicity of FUT-187 is attributable to the its benzoic acid.

Role of active oxygen species in the toxic effects of glucosone on mammalian cells

Glucosone (D-arabino-hexos-2-ulose), a typical enediol product formed both in the Maillard reaction and gamma-radiolysis of sugars, decreased survival of Chinese hamster lung V79 cells, which were incubated under MEM for 4 h. Inhibition of the decrease in cell survival by catalase and SOD suggests the role of active oxygen species, namely H2O2 and O2-, in the biological effects of glucosone. H2O2 was formed in the medium during oxidative degradation of glucosone. Inhibition of the formation of H2O2 by SOD indicates that the formation of H2O2 and the consequent decrease of the cell survival was enhanced by O2-. These results suggest that the mechanisms of the effects of glucosone on the mammalian cells in the absence of Cu2+ are different from those in the presence of Cu2+.

The evaluation of 6-amidino-2-naphthyl 4-[(4,5-dihydro-1H-imidazol-2-yl)amino] benzoate dimethanesulfonate (FUT-187) by oral administration in cynomolgus monkeys in a 13 week subacute toxicity study

To assess the subacute toxicity of 6-amidino-2-naphthyl 4-[(4,5-dihydro-1H-imidazol-2-yl)amino] benzoate dimethanesulfonate (FUT-187) a 13 week subacute toxicity study by gavage was done in Cynomolgus monkeys at dosage levels of 0, 15, 45 and 135 mg/kg/day. Deaths were seen in the 135 mg/kg/day group; with associated debility. The animals that died had high plasma levels of FUT-187. Little weight gain was seen in the 135 mg/kg/day group. There were no clear treatment related effects on ophthalmoscopy or electrocardiography or on hematological, biochemical or urinalysis. There were no effects noted at necropsy or on histopathology and the causes of death for each of the 3 animals that died were suppurative glomerulonephritis, bone marrow depression and possible gavage injury respectively. The no-effect level for toxicology was considered to be 45 mg/kg/day.

[A 13-week subacute oral toxicity study of 6-amidino-2-naphthyl 4-[(4,5-dihydro-1H-imidazol-2-yl) amino] benzoate dimethanesulfonate (FUT-187) in rats]

The toxicity of FUT-187, a synthetic protease inhibitor, was investigated in Sprague-Dawley rats. FUT-187 was given orally to the rats at doses of 2, 10, 50, 250 and 1250 mg/kg/day for 13 weeks, then the drug was withdrawn for 5 weeks for recovery. The results are summarized as follows: In the 1250 mg/kg/day group, 9 out of 20 males died with decreased body weight and exhaustion. Histopathological examination revealed renal papillary necrosis, ulcer in the urinary bladder, hemostatic lesions in the lungs and liver, ulcer or erosion in the stomach, duodenum and jejunum. The surviving animals in this group showed swelling of the limbs due to synovitis, transient salivation immediately after administration, suppression of growth with decreased food consumption. Urinalysis revealed a low pH, increased ketones and bilirubin excretion, dark yellowish change in color, the appearance of "leaflet-shaped" crystals and increased red blood cells and epithelial cells in the urinary sediment, increased water intake, decreased specific gravity and decreased sodium, potassium and chloride in the urine. Hematologically, there was an increase in the white blood cell count. A biochemical analysis of the blood revealed decreased amylase activity, glucose and total protein levels and increased GOT activity and inorganic phosphorus levels. Pathological changes were observed in the pancreas, kidney, digestive tract, urinary bladder and liver. The pancreas showed macroscopical enlargement and increased organ weight. Histopathologically, there were several alterations in the acinar cells, such as vacuolization due to increased fat droplets, nuclear irregularity, prominent nucleoli, irregular arrangement and vesiculation of rough endoplasmic reticulum (rER), dilatation of developed Golgi apparatus and increased free ribosomes. In the kidney, increased weight and pigmentation in the proximal tubular epithelium were noted. Electron microscopically, these pigments were recognized as secondary lysosomes containing filamentous material and electron dense granules within a lucent matrix. In the digestive tract, ulcer or erosion in the stomach and duodenum, and villous proliferation in the small intestine were observed. Furthermore, hyperplasia and vacuolization were noted in the mucosal epithelium of the urinary bladder. In addition, loss of perilobular fat droplets in the liver and increased adrenal weight without histological change were observed. After a 5-week recovery period, these changes disappeared almost completely. In the 250 mg/kg/day group, slight suppression of growth the appearance of "leaflet-shaped" crystals in the urinary , sediment, increased water intake and decreased sodium in the urine were observed. The pancreas showed enlargement, increased weight, acinar cell hypertrophy with increased zymogen granules, fine vacuolization, slight derangement and vesicular of rER, and dilatation of Golgi apparatus.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

[Acute toxicity study of 6-amidino-2-naphthyl 4-[(4,5-dihydro-1H-imidazol-2-yl) amino] benzoate dimethanesulfonate (FUT-187) in mice, rats and dogs

Single oral, subcutaneous or intravenous administration to mice and rats and oral administration to dogs were performed to investigate the acute toxicity of FUT-187. 1) LD50 values in mice were 4,395 mg/kg for males and 3,626 mg/kg for females orally, 6,284 mg/kg for males and 5,492 mg/kg for females subcutaneously, and 39.4 mg/kg for males and 41.4 mg/kg for females intravenously. In rats, these values were 4,653 mg/kg for males and 3,761 mg/kg for females orally, 6,799 mg/kg for males and 3,343 mg/kg for the females subcutaneously and 21.8 mg/kg for males and 15.8 mg/kg for females intravenously. 2) Death occurred 2 hours after administration in a male dog of the 3,000 mg/kg group just after convulsion and nasal discharge were observed. 3) General symptoms in mice and rats included a creeping gait, convulsion, singultus, cyanosis, decreased locomotor activity, piloerection and salivation which were commonly observed by all routes. All dogs showed vomiting and decreased locomotor activity; the prone or lateral position, crouching, ataxic gait and salivation were also observed in many cases. 4) On autopsy, changes attributable to local irritation by FUT-187 were seen in all species except mice and rats dosed intravenously. For the gastro intestinal-tract (GIT), inflammation of the stomach, adhesions between the stomach and the liver and sclerosis, petechiae or ulcer were observed in mice and rats dosed orally. In the subcutaneous route, retention of the test compound and necrosis at the injection site were observed. Reddening and loss of mucosal smoothness were observed in the GIT of a dog which died; desquamation, congestion, hemorrhage and retention of tested compound in the digestive mucosa were observed on histopathology.

[A 52-week oral chronic toxicity study of 6-amidino-2-naphthyl 4-[(4,5-dihydro-1H-imidazol-2-yl)amino] benzoate dimethanesulfonate (FUT-187) in rats with a recovery period of 5 weeks

The chronic toxicity of FUT-187, a synthetic protease inhibitor, was investigated in Sprague-Dawley rats. FUT-187 was given orally to the rats at doses of 0.4, 2, 10, 50 and 250 mg/kg/day for 52 weeks. The drug was then withdrawn for 5 weeks. The results are summarized as follows: There were no deaths or toxic signs caused by the drug throughout the experimental period. There were no drug-related changes in food consumption, ophthalmological examination, hematology or blood chemistry. Slight suppression of growth was observed in males in the 250 mg/kg group. This change was reversed on withdrawal of the drug. Drug crystals were observed in the urinary sediments of both sexes in the 250 mg/kg group, but this change disappeared on withdrawal of the drug. Gross pathological examination revealed the following changes: enlargement and nodule formation in the pancreas in both sexes given more than 10 mg/kg of the drug; dark red spots in the glandular stomach in males in the 250 mg/kg group; thickening of the small intestinal walls in both sexes given more than 50 mg/kg. Of these organs, no changes were observed in the stomach and small intestine at the end of the recovery period. Increased pancreas weight was observed in both sexes given more than 50 mg/kg of the drug. Examination at the end of the recovery period suggested reversibility, showing a lesser degree of change. Histopathological examination revealed the following changes in the pancreatic acinar cells: acidophilic foci and nodules in both sexes given more than 10 mg/kg of the drug; adenoma in one male in the 250 mg/kg group; increased zymogen granules in both sexes given more than 50 mg/kg of drug; fine vacuolization in females in the 250 mg/kg group. At the end of the recovery period, increased zymogen granules and fine vacuolization of the acinar cells were not found. Furthermore, erosion or healed erosion in the glandular stomach, duodenum and jejunum was observed in a few males or females in the 250 mg/kg group, but those changes disappeared after the recovery period. In the liver, altered cell foci was observed more frequently in males in the 250 mg/kg group than the other groups, but this change also disappeared after the recovery period. In addition, brown pigmentation in the proximal renal tubules of the kidney was observed in both sexes in the 250 mg/kg group, but lesions observed in the examination after the recovery period were less noticeable than in the examination at the end of the administration period.

[A 13-week subacute oral toxicity study of 6-amidino-2-naphthyl 4-[(4,5-dihydro-1H-imidazol-2-yl) amino] benzoate dimethanesulfonate (FUT-187) in dogs

A subacute oral toxicity study of 6-amidino-2-naphthyl 4-[(4,5-dihydro-1H-imidazol-2-yl) amino] benzoate dimethanesulfonate (FUT-187), a new protease-inhibiting agent, was carried out in beagle dogs of both sexes. FUT-187 was administered to dogs at daily oral doses of 15, 50 and 150 mg/kg. Dogs in 150 mg/kg group were given twice a day in a.m. and p.m.. The results were as follows: 1. Changes of physical sign attributed to FUT-187, consisted of vomiting, diarrhea, salivation, decrease of locomotor activity, sedation and hyperemia of eye mucosa. These changes expect vomiting vanished within about 2 hours after treatment. One male given 150 mg/kg died on day 19 and two females given 150 mg/kg were sacrificed on day 55 and 67 due to deterioration of systemic conditions. 2. Body weight gain was suppressed in males given 150 mg/kg and females given 50 mg/kg or more. 3. In hematological examinations, some changes suggesting anemia or inflammation were observed in a few animals received 50 mg/kg or more 4. In serum biochemical examinations, dogs given 50 mg/kg or more had decrease of albumin, total protein, A/G ratio and total cholesterol, increase of GPT activity. In liver function test, decrease of function was observed in a few animals in 150 mg/kg group. These changes diminished by the end of recovery period. 5. In autopsy findings, ulcer formation and desquamation of mucosa in the digestive tract were observed in dead or sacrificed animals and survived animals given more than 50 mg/kg. In sacrificed animals, liver was yellow in color and intussusception was seen. 6. Plasma levels of intact FUT-187 and metabolites on the day 37 or 83 were higher than that on the first day of administration. 7. In histopathological examinations, ulcer formation, desquamation, degeneration and/or atrophy of mucosa in the digestive tract were observed in the animals from 50 mg/kg and 150 mg/kg groups. In addition, fatty deposition in hepatocytes was observed in one dead animal and two sacrificed animals.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Monoclonal antibodies against haptens

Four kinds of monoclonal antibodies (moAbs) specific to paraquat, diquat, methamphetamine (MA) and melatonin (MT) were produced. 1-Methyl,1'-hexanoic acid-4,4'-bi-pyridinium, 4-amino-D,L-phenylalanine-diazo-coupled diquat, p-amino-methamphetamine as haptens were synthesized and coupled to bovine serum albumin (BSA) directly or to BSA via glutaraldehyde, and an antigen of MT was prepared by binding MT to BSA with the Mannich reaction. These immunogens of BSA conjugates were immunized i.p. to BALB/C mice. Usable moAbs were established 4 to 6 months after the first immunization. Amounts of paraquat, diquat, MA and MT causing a 50% of inhibition by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay or radioimmunoassay with one of the most specific moAbs from each hapten were 1.1 ng, 0.67 nmol, 10.0 ng and 1.4 ng, respectively.